Toppling the Taliban: Air-Ground Operations in Afghanistan, October 2001

183 Pages·2015·3.81 MB·English

Toppling
the Taliban
Air-Ground Operations in Afghanistan,
October 2001–June 2002
Walter L. Perry, David Kassing
CORPORATION
For more information on this publication, visit www.rand.org/t/rr381
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Perry, Walter L., author. | Kassing, David, author.
Title: Toppling the Taliban : air-ground operations in Afghanistan, October
2001/June 2002 / Walter L. Perry, David Kassing.
Other titles: Air-ground operations in Afghanistan, October 2001/June 2002
Description: Santa Monica, CA : RAND, [2015] | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015044123 (print) | LCCN 2015044164 (ebook) | ISBN
9780833082657 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780833086822 (ebook) | ISBN
9780833086839 (epub) | ISBN 9780833086846 ( prc)
Subjects: LCSH: Operation Enduring Freedom, 2001- | Afghan War,
2001---Campaigns. | Afghan War, 2001---Aerial operations, American. |
Postwar reconstruction—Afghanistan.
Classification: LCC DS371.412 .P47 2015 (print) | LCC DS371.412 (ebook) |
DDC
958.104/742—dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015044123
Published by the RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif.
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Preface
Toppling the Taliban reports the results of an analysis of Army operations in Afghani-
stan between October 2001 and June 2002. It discusses strategy, planning, and orga-
nization for Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF); examines Army operations; reports
on deployment and logistics issues; describes coalition operations; and considers civil-
military operations. Although the main focus is on the Army, attention is also given to
other aspects of the joint fight. No modern war can be explained or understood from
the perspective of a single Service; OEF is no exception.
The analysis is based on review of contemporary records and interviews with key
participants in OEF in Central Asia. Research began in April 2002 and was com-
pleted in December 2003. This report, which is based on unclassified source material
only, presents a summary of a larger work that drew from both classified and unclas-
sified sources; both were submitted as drafts in May 2006. Since the research was
completed and recommendations formulated several years ago, the situation is likely
to have changed—some recommendations might already have been implemented, in
whole or in part, while events that occurred after December 2003 might alter some of
the conclusions and recommendations. Nevertheless, the report’s recommendations are
provided as they were originally formulated.
This work will interest those involved in organizing, training, and equipping mil-
itary capabilities for planning, operating, deploying, and supporting joint and coali-
tion operations. The report also includes analyses of such topics as special operations
forces contributions, surveillance and reconnaissance, strategic mobility, air support
operations, and others.
This research was cosponsored by the Army G-3 and G-8 Deputy Chiefs of Staff
and was conducted in the RAND Arroyo Center’s Strategy, Doctrine, and Resources
Program. The RAND Arroyo Center, part of the RAND Corporation, is a federally
funded research and development center sponsored by the United States Army.
iii

Contents
Preface .................................................................................................iii
Figures and Tables ................................................................................... ix
Summary .............................................................................................. xi
Acknowledgments ............................................................................... xxvii
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations ......................................................... xxix
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction ...........................................................................................1
A Different Kind of War for U.S. Forces ............................................................2
Other Military Demands of the War on Terrorism ................................................4
Homeland Security ..................................................................................5
Force Protection ......................................................................................5
The War on Terrorism Outside Central Asia .....................................................5
Meeting the Manpower Requirements ..............................................................5
The Area of Operations ................................................................................6
About This Report .....................................................................................7
Purpose ................................................................................................9
Organization of This Report .......................................................................9
CHAPTER TWO
Laying the Groundwork ........................................................................... 11
The Strategic Context ................................................................................ 12
Building and Managing the Coalition ............................................................ 13
The Coalition ....................................................................................... 14
Indigenous Partners ................................................................................ 16
Joint and Covert Forces ........................................................................... 16
Technology ............................................................................................ 16
Humanitarian Operations and Reconstruction ................................................. 17
Pre–September 11 Planning and Operations Against Al Qaeda ............................... 18
Developing the War Plan: September 11–October 6, 2001..................................... 22
War Aims Emerged ................................................................................ 22
v
vi Toppling the Taliban
Initial Military Planning .......................................................................... 25
Intelligence Community Planning .............................................................. 28
Role of the Allies in Planning .................................................................... 29
Planning at CENTCOM ......................................................................... 29
Guidance to Planners .............................................................................. 31
Component and Supporting Command Planning ............................................ 32
ARCENT Planning ............................................................................... 35
CENTAF Planning ................................................................................ 35
Observations .......................................................................................... 36
Coordination with Coalition Partners .......................................................... 36
Inter-Agency Coordination ...................................................................... 37
Humanitarian Operations ........................................................................ 37
Deliberate Planning ............................................................................... 37
CHAPTER THREE
Toppling the Taliban ............................................................................... 39
Command and Control ............................................................................. 39
Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance .................................................. 41
Role of the CIA .................................................................................... 42
Unmanned Aircraft Systems ...................................................................... 42
Intelligence Fusion Centers ....................................................................... 43
Intelligence Failures ............................................................................... 44
Air Operations ....................................................................................... 44
Basing ............................................................................................... 44
Control of Air Assets .............................................................................. 45
The Bombing Campaign .......................................................................... 46
Air-Ground Operations with Anti-Taliban Forces ............................................... 48
Mazar-e Sharif ...................................................................................... 48
Kandahar ........................................................................................... 59
The Collapse of the Taliban ......................................................................... 62
Role of Special Forces ............................................................................. 63
Air and Air-Ground Operations ................................................................. 63
Conventional Ground Forces ...................................................................... 64
Marines .............................................................................................. 64
Army Forces ....................................................................................... 65
Logistics ............................................................................................... 65
Concurrent Humanitarian Operations ............................................................ 67
The Detainees ......................................................................................... 68
Treatment of Detainees ........................................................................... 69
National Detainee Database ...................................................................... 70
Treatment in Afghanistan Facilities ............................................................. 70
Summary vii
Rules for the Use of Force......................................................................... 71
Treatment at Camp X-Ray ........................................................................ 72
The Debate over Detainee Status—The U.S. Position ......................................... 73
Arguments Against U.S. Policy .................................................................. 75
Implications......................................................................................... 77
Observations .......................................................................................... 78
Command and Control ........................................................................... 78
Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance ................................................ 79
The Coalition ....................................................................................... 80
Humanitarian Assistance ......................................................................... 80
Treatment of Detainees ........................................................................... 81
CHAPTER FOUR
Hunting Down Taliban and Al Qaeda Remnants ............................................ 83
Control of Ground Forces ........................................................................... 84
Task Force 58 ......................................................................................... 85
Formation of Task Force 58 ...................................................................... 85
Coordinating Operations with Pakistan ........................................................ 86
Joint and Coalition Operations .................................................................. 86
FOB Rhino ......................................................................................... 87
Operations .......................................................................................... 88
Taking the Kandahar Airport .................................................................... 89
Sensitive Site Exploitations ........................................................................ 89
Detainee Operations ............................................................................... 90
Air Support Operations ........................................................................... 90
End of Mission ..................................................................................... 91
Tora Bora .............................................................................................. 91
The Area of Operations ........................................................................... 92
Indigenous Forces .................................................................................. 92
Operations .......................................................................................... 94
The End Game ..................................................................................... 95
A Missed Opportunity ............................................................................ 96
Operation ANACONDA ........................................................................... 98
Planning............................................................................................. 98
Execution ..........................................................................................100
Roberts Ridge .....................................................................................102
End Game .........................................................................................103
Summing Up ......................................................................................103
viii Toppling the Taliban
CHAPTER FIVE
Building for the Long Run .......................................................................105
Putting International Efforts in Place ............................................................105
Establishing the Interim Administration ......................................................105
Providing International Financial Assistance ..................................................107
Setting Up the International Security Assistance Force ......................................109
Coordinating and Conducting Civil Affairs Activities ......................................... 113
Stabilization Role of U.S. Forces .................................................................. 115
The Afghan National Army ........................................................................ 116
Other Stability Activities ........................................................................... 116
CHAPTER SIX
Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................... 119
What Worked Well ................................................................................. 119
Recommendations ..................................................................................120
Joint and Coalition Operations .................................................................121
Deployment and Sustainment ...................................................................122
Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance ...............................................122
Operations with Special Operations Forces ...................................................123
Stability and Support Operations ...............................................................123
Implications for Army Modernization ............................................................124
CHAPTER SEVEN
Epilogue .............................................................................................125
The Military Situation ..............................................................................125
Governance ..........................................................................................126
International Financial Support ...................................................................128
The Afghan Economy ..............................................................................129
Reconstruction and Human Development ......................................................130
Prospects ............................................................................................. 131
Bibliography ........................................................................................133
Figures and Tables
Figures
1.1. Army Reserve and National Guard Soldiers on Active Duty ........................ 6
1.2. Afghanistan and Its Surrounding Region .............................................. 7
1.3. Afghanistan ................................................................................ 8
2.1. U.S. Central Command Area of Responsibility, Fall 2001 .........................13
2.2. RFF Process During OEF ............................................................. 34
3.1. Military Command Arrangements ................................................... 40
3.2. Command and Control for Air Missions .............................................45
3.3. Number of Weapons Dropped Each Week ...........................................47
3.4. The Campaign to Take Mazar-e Sharif ...............................................52
3.5. Cumulative Weekly Drops of Humanitarian Daily Rations .......................67
3.6. Detainee Facility at Kandahar, January 2002 ........................................69
3.7. Military Police Process Detainees in Shebergen .....................................70
3.8. Detainees at Guantanamo ..............................................................73
4.1. Management Process for Ground Operations in 2002 ............................. 84
4.2. Tora Bora Area of Operations ..........................................................93
4.3. Terrain and Concept of Operation for ANACONDA ............................ 100
5.1. Military Presence at Outset of Post-Conflict Operations ......................... 115
Tables
1.1. Chronology of Key Events in Operation Enduring Freedom ....................... 3
1.2. Public Support for Military Operations, September 2001–March 2002 .......... 4
3.1. Detainee Support Forces, as of March 18, 2002 .....................................71
5.1. Composition of ISAF, January–June 2002 ......................................... 110
ix