The Wars of Spanish American Independence 1809–29 PDF
Preview The Wars of Spanish American Independence 1809–29
Essential Histories The War s of Spanish American Independence 1809–29 John Fletcher © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Essential Histories The Wars of Spanish American Independence 1809–29 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Essential Histories The Wars of Spanish American Independence 1809–29 John Fletcher © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Contents Introduction 7 Chronology 9 Backgroundtowar A creaking empire 12 Thewarringsides “Fight and you shall win” 19 Outbreak Loyal revolutionaries 26 Thefighting “War to the death” 33 Portraitofasoldier William Miller 63 Theworldaroundwar Anarchy and opportunity 68 Portraitofacivilian Francisco José de Caldas 75 Howthewarended “The peoples are tired and want nothing but peace and order” 79 Conclusion and consequences 85 Bibliography 92 Index 94 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Introduction TheWarsofSpanishAmericanIndependence ofMexico,Panama,Venezuela,Colombia, wereaseriesofsimultaneousconflictsin Ecuador,Peru,Bolivia,Chile,andArgentina Spain’sNorthandSouthAmericancolonies intoexistence.Britain,theUnitedStatesof between1809and1829.Startedbythe America,andFrancebenefitedfromthe samesetofcauses,theywerefoughtalmost declineofSpanishinfluencethrough entirelyindependentlywithineachofthe increasedtrade,influenceand,inthe fourviceroyaltiesthatcomprisedSpanish caseoftheUnitedStates,territory. America.Thosewhofoughtforindependence TheRoyalistcausewascomplicatedbythe werecalledPatriots,whilethosewhofought strugglewithinSpainbetweenConservative forthecontinuationofSpanishrulewere AbsolutistsandLiberalConstitutionalists. calledRoyalists.Ultimately,Patriotsprevailed ineachviceroyaltyandattheendofthe BatalladeMaipú(detail),1904,byPedroSubercaseaux (1880–1956).Thewarsofindependence,whichdivided warstheonlycoloniesremaininginSpanish Americansbycaste,region,andpoliticalphilosophy, possessionwereCubaandPuertoRico.The wereasmuchcivilwarsasrebellionsagainstSpain. conflictsmarkedtheendofSpain’sposition (MuseoHistóricoNacional,Chile;photographby asaworldpowerandbroughtthenations MarcoBenavente) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com 8 EssentialHistories•TheWarsofSpanishAmericanIndependence1809–29 Constitutionalistsbelievedcorruptionin asmallermajorityofCreoleswerePatriots. theroyalfamilywasthecauseofSpain’s Beingatthetopoftheeconomicandsocial declineandsoughttoinstallaconstitutional pyramid,thesegroups’divisionsreflected monarchy,whileAbsolutistsstrovetorestore whostoodtogainorlosethemostfrom theoldmonarchywithoutchange.During thewar’soutcome.Amongthelowercastes, thewarseachfactionheldpowertwice, thesituationwashighlydependentonthe leadingtoconfusionandconflictamong regionandtheyear.Bothsidesmadeappeals Royalistofficialsinthecolonies.Royalist todrawthelowercastestotheirownbanner. rankswerefurtherstrainedbytensions RoyalistsusedlawsendingIndiantribute, betweennewlyarrivingofficersfrom religion,andthesemi-mythicalstatusof SpainandveteranofficersinAmerica. thekingtoattractfollowers,whilePatriots AmericanofficersfoundtheirnewSpanish proposedlegalequalityandemancipation counterpartstobearrogantandignorant ofslavesinexchangeforservice.Inmany ofAmericaanditspeople.Spanishofficers casesloyaltywassimplygiventoexisting recentlyarrivingfromtheNapoleonicWars localleaders. wereshockedbytheamateurtrainingofthe Despitetheparticipationofover40,000 Americancommandersandthebloodthirsty Spanishregularsand6,000BritishandIrish wayinwhichtheyprosecutedthewar.The mercenaries,theoverwhelmingmajorityof resultingrivalrieswerefataltotheRoyalist menwhofoughtthesewarswereAmericans. causeinMexico,Venezuela,andPeru. OnthePatriotsidetwogenerals,Simón ThePatriotcausewasdividedoverthe BolívarandJosédeSanMartín,emerged territorialboundariesofthenewcountries asthegreatestmilitaryleaders,steadfastly andconstitutionalissuesregardingthe remainingcommittedtotheirvisionthrough strengthofcentralgovernmentwithin everytrial.Eventually,eachbecameknown eachofthenewnations.Thedefinition as“TheLiberator.”Thecontributionsof ofbordersreflectedtheinevitableregional blackandIndiansoldiersdeeplychallenged differencesthatarosewithcolonizationof theracialpresumptionsandcastestructure suchanimmensegeographicalareaand ofcolonialsociety,andadvancedtheend thefactthathugeportionsoftheSpanish ofslaveryintheAmericas. colonieswerebarelyexplored,letalone Thewarsdividedintofourphases. settled,frontiers.Thequestionofcentral Phase1wastheinitialpushforindependence, governmentsplitPatriotsintoFederalists, 1810–13.Thisphasewasmarkedbythe thosewhowishedtoseeweakcentral declarationofindependenceofmost governmentspresidingoverloose Patriotregionsandthefirstcampaigns confederationsofstrongindividual todriveouttheSpanish.Phase2wasthe states,andCentralists,whobelievedin Royalistreconquest,1814–17.Thisphase astrongfederalgovernmentandlimited wasmarkedbythearrivalofSpanishtroops states’rights.Ittooklessthantwoyears intheregionandthesuccessfuleffortsofthe forthePatriotsinNewGranadatofallinto variousviceroysinreassertingtheauthority civilwaroverthisveryissueandin1815a oftheCrownacrossalmosttheentireregion. FederalLeagueformedinoppositiontothe Phase3wasthePatriottriumph,1818–24. centralistpoliciesofRíodelaPlata.Besides Thisphasewasmarkedbyasnowballing weakeningPatriotefforts,thesedivisions seriesofpoliticaleventsandPatriotvictories ledtodecadesofinstabilityandwarfare thatsecuredindependence.Phase4was afterindependence. consolidation,1825–29.Thisphasewas Thewarswereinitiatedanddrivenby markedbythedefeatofthefinalRoyalist membersoftheupperstrataofcolonial outpostsandemergingconflictwithinand society:Peninsulares,whitesborninSpain, betweenthenewlyindependentstates,in andCreoles,whitesborninthecolonies.The manycasesdirectlylinkedtothelegacyof majorityofPeninsulareswereRoyalistswhile colonialism. © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Chronology 1807 NovemberFrenchtroopsinvade 1810 May25JuntaestablishedinBuenos Portugal Aires,RíodelaPlata May–JulyJuntasformedacross 1808 February10Frenchtroopbuild-up NewGranada inSpain September16MiguelHidalgo March18SpanishKingCharlesIV issues“GritodeDolores”inDolores, abdicatesinfavorofhisson, NewSpain FerdinandVII September18NationalJuntaformed May2Anti-FrenchriotsinMadrid, inChile Spain September22Quitodeclaresanother May5Duringnegotiationsarbitrated junta byFrenchEmperorNapoleon October11Quitojuntadeclares Bonaparte,CharlesIVrescinds independence abdicationwhileFerdinandVII October30Patriotvictoryatthebattle abdicatesinfavorofCharlesIV; ofMontedelasCruces,NewSpain CharlesIVthenre-abdicatesin November7Royalistvictoryatthe favorofNapoleon battleofAculco,NewSpain May6FerdinandVIIimprisoned inBayonne,France;CharlesIV 1811 January17Royalistvictoryatthe acceptsaFrenchpensionand battleofCalderónBridge,NewSpain eventuallysettlesinRome, March9Royalistvictoryatthebattle wherehediesonJanuary20, ofTacuarí,Paraguay 1819 July25Napoleonnameshis brotherJosephkingofSpain;the coloniesrefusetoacknowledge Frenchrule September25SupremeCentraland GovernmentalJuntaofSpainandthe IndiesformedinSeville,Spaintoresist Franceandautonomouslyrulein FerdinandVII’snameuntilhis restoration 1809 May25JuntaformedinChuquisaca, UpperPeru July16JuntaformedinLaPaz, UpperPeru BatalladeTacuarí,c.1856,byCarlosPabloRipamonti August10JuntaformedinQuito, (1874–1968).Accordingtolegenda12-year-old drummerboyguidedanofficerblindedbycannonfire NewGranada tosafetyduringthebattleofTacuarí.Theboyhimself September–OctoberRoyalisttroops waskilled.Mostlikelyfiction,thestorynevertheless defeatLaPazandChuquisacajuntas sumsupthedeephumantolltakenbythewars. December4RoyalisttroopsenterQuito (ArchivoGeneraldelaNación,Argentina) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com 10 EssentialHistories•TheWarsofSpanishAmericanIndependence1809–29 firstbattleofSanMateo March22FerdinandVIIrestoredto throneandCádizConstitution rescinded,Spain March25Patriotvictoryatthe secondbattleofSanMateo,Venezuela May14RoyalistscaptureAntonio NariñoinNewGranada May28Patriotvictoryatthefirst battleofCarabobo,Venezuela June15Royalistvictoryatthesecond battleofLaPuerta,Venezuela June23Royalistssurrender Montevideo,BandaOriental July16RoyalistscaptureCaracas, Venezuela;fallofSecondVenezuelan Republic BatalladeChacabuco,1863,byJoséTomásVandorsse. August14PabloMorilloplacedin ThispaintingdepictstheclimacticPatriotcharge. Inthe chargeof10,000-manSpanish foregroundthe7thand8thinfantryregimentsmove expedition forward,whilethehorsegrenadiersattackinthe October1–2Royalistvictoryat background.NoticethesegregatedPatriotunitsand theinfantryingarrisoncapswhilethehorsegrenadiers thebattleofRancagua,Chile wearshakos.(MuseoHistóricoNacional,Chile) December5Royalistvictoryatthe battleofUrica,Venezuela June20Royalistvictoryatthebattle ofHuaqui,UpperPeru 1815 May8BolívarexiledtoHaiti July5Venezueladeclaresindependence April7PabloMorillo’s“Expedicion July30Hidalgoisexecutedin Pacificadora”arrivesinVenezuela Chihuahua,NewSpain August–DecemberRoyalistvictoryat November11Independencedeclared siegeofCartagena,NewGrenada inCartagena,NewGranada November28Royalistvictoryatthe battleofViluma(SipeSipe),Upper 1812 March19CádizConstitution,Spain Peru(Bolivia) July25FirstVenezuelanRepublic capitulates 1816 MayMorillocompletesreconquest ofNewGranada 1813 February–August“Admirable May8Bolívarvoluntarilyexiles Campaign,”Venezuela himselftoJamaica,thenHaiti March15Bolívardeclares“Warto July9Independencedeclaredbythe theDeath,”Venezuela UnitedProvincesoftheRíodelaPlata August7BolívardeclaresSecond August28Portugese/Braziliantroops VenezuelanRepublic invadeBandaOriental November14Royalistvictoryatthe battleofAyohuma,UpperPeru 1817 February12Patriotvictoryatthe December5Patriotvictoryatthe battleofChacabuco,Chile battleofAraure,Venezuela July17PatriotscaptureAngostura, Venezuela 1814 February3Royalistvictoryatthe firstbattleofLaPuerta,Venezuela 1818 March16Royalistvictoryatthethird February28Patriotvictoryatthe battleofLaPuerta,Venezuela © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Chronology 11 April5Patriotvictoryatthebattleof 1823 July24Patriotvictoryatthebattleof Maipú,Chile LakeMaracaibo September23FerdinandVIIrestored 1819 August7Patriotvictoryatthebattle andCádizConstitutionrescindedin ofBoyacá,NewGranada Spain December17CongressofAngostura December2USAproclaimsMonroe declarescreationofGranColombia Doctrine 1820 January1RiegoRevolt,Spain 1824 December9Patriotvictoryatthe January22Portuguesevictoryatthe battleofAyacucho,Peru battleofTacuarembó,BandaOriental February1ThebattleofCepedamarks 1825 April1Patriotvictoryatthebattleof thebeginningofcivilwarinUnited Tumulsa,UpperPeru ProvincesoftheRíodelaPlata October12Uruguayanvictoryover March10CádizConstitution Brazilianforcesatthebattleof restored,Spain Sarandí(inBrazil,previouslypart November26–27Trucebetween ofBandaOriental) BolívarandMorillo;“Wartothe Death”rescinded 1826 January15Royalistgarrison December17MorilloreturnstoSpain surrenders,Chiloé,Chile January22Royalistgarrison 1821 June24Patriotvictoryatthesecond surrenders,Callao,Peru battleofCarabobo,Venezuela September27AgustíndeIturbide 1829 July27–September11Mexican entersMexicoCityanddeclares victoryatthebattleofTampico, Mexicanindependence Mexico 1822 April7Patriotvictoryatthebattleof Bombona,NewGranada LosArtillerosdeBorgoñoenlabatalladeMaipú,1943,by PedroSubercaseaux(1880–1956).Theexperthandling May24Patriotvictoryatthebattle ofthisPatriotartillerybatterywascrucialtostopping ofPichincha,Quito aRoyalistcounterattackandturningthetideofthe July26–27SanMartínandBolívar battle.(MuseoHistóricoNacional,Chile;photograph meetatthe“EntrevistadeGuayaquil” byMarcoBenavente) © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Background to war A creaking empire InthepredawnhoursofAugust1,1806, asmallfleetofshipsdisembarkedabout600 armedAmericanandBritishnationals,along withoneVenezuelan,nearCoro,Venezuela. Thetroopsformedthevanguardofanarmy ofliberation.TheVenezuelan,Franciscode Miranda,wastheircommander.Miranda wasanexiledVenezuelanCreoleandtireless advocateforindependence.Hewas56years oldandaveteranoftheSpanishandFrench armies,havingbegunhiscareerasacaptain andendingitageneral.Hehadservedin Africa,theAmericanRevolutionaryWar,and theFrenchRevolutionaryWars,andgaineda reputationasabraveandcapableofficer.He waswellknownthroughoutthecapitalsof theworldbut,after30yearsabroad,was GeneralísimoFranciscodeMiranda,1899,byEmilioJacinto avirtualstrangertohisowncountry. Mauri(1885–1908).MirandawasarisingstarintheFrench Mirandahadlongagodeducedthat RevolutionaryWarsuntilhefellfouloftheTerror.His confidentgeneralshipintheLowCountriesduring1792 VenezuelaneededtobefreeofSpanish and1793standsincontrasttohismeekperformancein rule.HeloathedtherestrictionsofSpanish Venezuelain1812.(PalacioFederalLegislativo,Venezuela) government,thestiflingoftradeand ideasthatkeptVenezuelabackwardsand preventedthecolonyfromdevelopingto andbeatanignominiousretreatbackinto itsfullpotential.Duringhisyearsabroadhe exile.Whentheroyalauthoritiesreasserted hadreceivedcountlesslettersfromwealthy control,theydiscoveredapileofmanifestos Creolesthatreinforcedhisview.Clearly Mirandahadprinted,includingthebanned thepeopleofVenezuela–indeed,ofall “DeclarationoftheRightsofMan”–noone theSpanishcolonies–wouldriseuponhis hadbotheredtodistributethem,muchless arrivalandclaimtheirnaturalplaceinthe readthem.Suchwasthefervorfor Enlightenment-inspiredrealmsoffreetrade independenceinlate1806. andfreenations. Miranda’sexperiencewashardlyunique. Tohisdismay,hefoundCoronearly Afterthreecenturiesofrule,Spanish deserted;notonlyhadthegarrisonfled, officialshadbecomeadeptatdefusing sohadmostofthepopulace.Afterten colonialgrievancesbyisolatinggroups frustratingdaysofissuingbombastic andgeographicallycontainingdisruptions decreestoadesertedtown,Mirandarealized oruprisings.This“divideandrule”strategy hisfundamentalerror:thecomplaintsof startedwithanexceedinglycomplex,racially hiswealthyCreolecontactswerenotthe basedcastesystem.Theinhabitantsofthe grievancesofthemasses.As1,500Spanish coloniesweredividedintogroups,eachof troopsgatheredoutsidethetownand whichwasgivenitsownsetsoflawsand additionalreinforcementshurriedforward restrictions,includingtherightsitsmembers fromCaracas,Mirandasullenlyre-embarked possessed,theoccupationstheycould © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
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