The sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus : history, biology and aquaculture

453 Pages·2015·89.983 MB·English

by  Hamel, Jean-François, Mercier, Annie, Yang, Hongsheng

The Sea Cucumber
Apostichopus japonicus
History, Biology and Aquaculture
Edited by
Hongsheng Yang
Jean-François Hamel
Annie Mercier
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List of Contributors
Jun Akamine
Institute for the Study of Global Issues, Graduate School of Social Sciences, Hitotsubashi
University, Kunitachi City, Tokyo, Japan
Yucen Bai
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Muyan Chen
College of Fisheries, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Fei Gao
Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow
Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong,
PR China
Jean-François Hamel
Society for the Exploration and Valuing of the Environment (SEVE), Portugal Cove-St. Philips,
NL, Canada
Seonggul Hong
Marine Policy Research Division, Korea Maritime Institute, KBS Media-Center 15F #45,
Maebongsonro, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Yao Huang
Department of Preschool Education, South Sichuan Preschool Education College, Longchang,
Sichuan, PR China
Jong Yong Ho
External Economic Cooperation Department, Ministry of Fisheries, Pyongyang, Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea
Chenggang Lin
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Guangbin Liu
Benthic Biology Research Centre, Marine Biology Institute of Shandong Province, Qingdao,
Shandong, PR China
Jinxian Liu
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Shilin Liu
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Quan Liu
Sea Cucumber Culture Research Association of Zibo Nutrition Society, Zibo, Shandong,
PR China
xv
xvi List of Contributors
Alessandro Lovatelli
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Aquaculture Branch (FIRA), Viale delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
Yuze Mao
Mariculture Ecology Division, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy
of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Annie Mercier
Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University, St. John’s, NL, Canada
Yang Pan
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Sungjun Park
Marine Policy Research Division, Korea Maritime Institute, KBS Media-Center 15F #45,
Maebongsonro, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Tianlong Qiu
Marine Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Xiaoshang Ru
College of Fisheries, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Hao Song
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Xiaoyue Song
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Lin Su
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Jingchun Sun
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Lina Sun
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Fangyu Wang
Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
Zhengzhou, PR China
Qing Wang
Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute
of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, Shandong, PR China
List of Contributors xvii
Tianming Wang
Marine Science and Technology College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan, Zhejiang,
PR China
Xiaoyu Wang
Laboratory of Fishery Resources and Marine Ecology, Tianjin Fisheries Research Institute,
Tianjin, PR China
Sudong Xia
Department of Modern Aquaculture Technology Research, Tianjin Fisheries Research Institute,
Tianjin, PR China
Kun Xing
School of Marine Science and Environment Engineering, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian,
PR China
Dongxue Xu
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Qiang Xu
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Hongsheng Yang
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Injoo Yoon
Marine Policy Research Division, Korea Maritime Institute, KBS Media-Center 15F #45,
Maebongsonro, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Zonghe Yu
Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of
Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, PR China
Xiutang Yuan
Key Laboratory of Coastal Ecology and Environment, National Marine Environmental Monitoring
Center, State Oceanic Administration, Dalian, Liaoning, PR China
Libin Zhang
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Shanshan Zhang
College of Fisheries, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Tao Zhang
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Heling Zhao
Asian Herpetological Research Editorial Office, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, PR China
xviii List of Contributors
Huan Zhao
School of Fisheries and Life Science, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, PR China
Peng Zhao
Department of Marine Planning, Strategy and Rights, National Marine Data & Information
Service, Tianjin, PR China
Yi Zhou
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Aijun Zhu
College of Fisheries, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
Preface
Sea cucumbers are one of the most important marine resources supporting coastal livelihoods around
the world. They are widely distributed, from the shores to deep ocean trenches, inhabit diverse habitats,
and often exhibit large biomasses. The Western Pacific coast hosts a rich diversity of sea cucumbers,
among which Apostichopus japonicus is a focal species.
Sea cucumbers, and A. japonicus in particular, are closely woven into the history and culture of
China and neighboring East Asian countries. The Chinese character “ ,” which refers to sea cucum-
ber, can be traced back to the Oracle Bone inscriptions from the Shang Dynasty, 1300 B.C. The first
record of sea cucumber consumption is found as early as the Three Kingdoms Period. For hundreds of
years, sea cucumber has been considered among the most nutritious foods in China; it is now a prized
delicacy alongside the well-known birds’ nests and abalones. As such, it is at the forefront of many
regional cuisines of China, especially at important banquets. The medicinal properties of sea cucumber
are recorded in famous Chinese books such as “A Supplement to the Compendium of Materia Medica”
and “New Compilation of Materia Medica.” The singularities and significance of sea cucumber are
also recorded in Chinese literature. Many folk tales highlight its special morphological characters and
tonic effects.
Today, A. japonicus has incontestable economic value and potential; it is at the heart of a huge
industry worth over 5 billion USD. This species exhibits many fascinating biological characters such
as aestivation, evisceration, regeneration, albinism, and autolysis. The peculiar biological features,
mythical curative properties, and unique traditional culture surrounding A. japonicus have inspired our
research interests.
Why has the sea cucumber played such a long-standing and important role in Chinese traditional
culture? Why do the Chinese love eating sea cucumber so much? What curative effects does it really
have? How is sea cucumber best cooked? What is the best aquaculture model for sea cucumber? How
can environmentally friendly and sustainable development of the sea cucumber industry be achieved?
For many years, research groups at the Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
(IOCAS) have carried out studies on the biology, physiology, ethology, and aquaculture of A. japonicus.
With our growing knowledge of A. japonicus, we became even fonder of this ancient and mysterious
animal. The idea to compile this knowledge in a book first emerged in November 2011, following an
academic exchange with Canadian colleagues who were equally fascinated with sea cucumbers. Our
discussions were both informative and fruitful. They expressed a desire to help us disseminate findings
that were largely confined to Chinese publications, for the benefit of researchers and industries who
were preoccupied with A. japonicus and other species of sea cucumber in the rest of the world. The draft
outline of the book was prepared in March 2012, and the chapters fleshed out during our visit to Canada
in September 2012. Invitations were thereafter extended to colleagues outside IOCAS with compatible
interests, to capture the full scope of research areas surrounding A. japonicus. Given the language bar-
rier, it was admittedly challenging to summarize the biological studies, the development of the aqua-
culture industry and to present both the traditional and modern culture methods of A. japonicus. The
Chinese contributors prepared the initial drafts either in their native language or in tentative English.
Each chapter was then revised internally at IOCAS until a full preliminary English version was obtained
xix
xx Preface
in May 2013. It took another 15 months for my English-speaking co-editors to lead contributors through
several additional rounds of revision, until the book was finally ready.
Special thanks should be given to my esteemed co-editors, who put a lot of time and effort into this
book. It was quite an undertaking! They not only planned the structure of the book with us, but also
invited researchers from Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, and Japan to take
part in the project. I was impressed by their rigorous and careful editing, great attitude, and hard work.
Without their efforts, the book could not have been completed and published successfully.
Hongsheng Yang
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Preface xxi
Of all the creatures humans consume, sea cucumbers might well qualify as the weirdest. Worm-shaped
and slimy, smooth or horny, with no clear front and rear ends and no easily discernible movements,
these ocean dwellers are anything but endearing. The fact that many of them feed on detritus does noth-
ing to improve their image. Yet, in their infinite wisdom, East Asian people have marked sea cucumbers
as one of our planet's most valuable gifts, with such emphasis that sea cucumber is one of the most
prized seafood in the world today.
Among the approximately 1200 known species of sea cucumber, some 70 are harvested worldwide.
But the undisputed favorite, the so-called king of sea cucumbers, is Apostichopus japonicus, sometimes
referred to in English literature as the Japanese sea cucumber. This species is not larger or more colorful
than others, but its native populations extend along the coasts of the Northwest Pacific, where the love
of sea cucumber first bloomed. A millennium later, this adoration has taken its toll; with a market value
peaking close to 3000 USD per dry kilo, A. japonicus is now officially an endangered species, as most
of its wild populations are dwindling dangerously. On the other hand, there is no shortage of captive-
bred specimens in China, where sea cucumber is now the number one aquaculture industry.
The Chinese people’s enduring relationship with sea cucumber has had far-reaching repercussions
over the past century. On a planetary scale, it has led to overfishing of most commercial species, some
to the brink of extinction, followed by countless initiatives to breed sea cucumbers of every denomina-
tion across the globe. All this in an effort to sustain the mythical appetite of 1.5 billion people living
in China, in neighboring East Asian nations and in Chinatowns worldwide. Nearly everywhere we go,
we meet people involved in sea cucumber conservation or production initiatives, from remote islands
of the Indo-Pacific, to coastal nations of South and Central America, Asia, and Africa, all the way to
Russia and North America, including Newfoundland, where we currently live.
Our own fascination with sea cucumbers was born out of curiosity for their strange looks and be-
haviors. We initially strove to understand how they reproduce, feed, and communicate with each other,
and to assess the role they play in marine ecosystems from shallow to deep-sea environments. Our
fundamental interest in their biology eventually drove us toward more applied projects, first in Canada
and then abroad, as our expertise was sought to assist fisheries and aquaculture ventures. To this day,
all things sea cucumber still guide our travels around the world.
We suspect that A. japonicus is the most studied sea cucumber by a fair margin, and perhaps even
the most studied echinoderm. The number of English publications on this species is already high,
without counting those in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Russian. This led us to ponder how much
information lay underused and underappreciated in foreign-language or gray literature. Hence came the
idea to ask our Chinese colleagues to share their knowledge with us through this book. Our initial aim
was to fulfill the curiosity of sea cucumber aficionados and researchers like us and to help stakehold-
ers around the world understand the cultural background and success of China when it comes to sea
cucumber production and trade.
We have tried to solicit contributions from experts in nearly all aspects of the biology, ecology,
captive breeding, and commerce of A. japonicus. Admittedly and despite our best efforts, this book is not
comprehensive; we recognize that much more information could have been included. Notwithstanding
space constraints, emphasis was definitely placed on information that had not previously been published
in English. We broke a number of language barriers, but certainly not all of them. The initial focus was
on China; ultimately, Japan and the two Koreas joined in. In all, 42 contributors from 16 institutions
and six countries were directly involved in this project (aside from external collaborators and reviewers;
see Acknowledgments). We take this opportunity to apologize for the imprecisions and inaccuracies
xxii Preface
that have doubtless evaded our scrutiny. Please be reminded that they are not necessarily the fault of the
contributors, but perhaps an unfortunate outcome of their meaning being lost in translation.
The world of sea cucumber research is an ever-evolving one and we hope that this contribution will
inspire and fuel many investigations to come!
The adventure of this book was a challenging yet rewarding one. We wish to warmly thank all the
contributors for sharing their insight, for working hard over the course of nearly two years, and for
replying quickly to our many requests, comments, and suggestions. Of course, none of this would have
been possible without the support and dedication of our friend and co-editor Hongsheng Yang, and of
his team. May the sea cucumber god grant them wisdom and prosperity in this life and beyond!
Annie Mercier & Jean-François Hamel
Newfoundland (Canada)