“The Refutation of Christians” (Al-Radd

261 Pages·2015·3.7 MB·English

by  Nathan P. Gibson

THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA
Closest in Friendship? Al-Jah̄ ̣iz’̣ Pro#le of Christians in Abbasid Society in
“The Refutation of Christians” (Al-Radd ʿala ̄ al-Nasạ r̄ a)̄
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Faculty of the
Department of Semitic and Egyptian Languages and Literatures
School of Arts and Sciences
Of The Catholic University of America
In Partial Ful#llment of the Requirements
For the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
©
Copyright
All Rights Reserved
By
Nathan P. Gibson
Washington, D.C.
2015
Closest in Friendship? Al-Jah̄ ̣iz’̣ Pro#le of Christians in Abbasid Society in
“The Refutation of Christians” (Al-Radd ʿala ̄ al-Nasạ r̄ a)̄
Nathan P. Gibson, Ph.D.
Director: Sidney H. Gri$th, Ph.D.
Abbasid society in ninth-century Iraq faced the challenge of reconciling the role
of its many non-Muslim citizens with Islamic norms and governance, as seen in “The
Refutation of Christians” by al-Jah̄ ̣iz ̣(d. 868/869 [255 A.H.]). Al-Jah̄ ̣iz ̣moved in circles
only one step removed from those of the Christian and Jewish intellectuals he came to
criticize in the work, and he likely composed it just prior to Caliph al-Mutawakkil’s
watershed reforms in non-Muslim policy. Thus, the “Refutation” is a primary source for
understanding shifting Muslim sensibilities toward Christians’ societal role in a
religiously diverse realm, but its polemic approach makes it problematic to analyze
historically. This dissertation seeks to make “The Refutation of Christians” more
accessible as a historical source by performing a contextual analysis of its
argumentation.
Al-Jah̄ ̣iz’̣ rhetorical strategy is to explain away factors behind popular Muslim
preferences for Christians over Jews, and then to advance positive reasons for
considering Christians more harmful than Jews. Argumentation analysis using the
pragma-dialectical approach highlights salient social points at issue between Christians
and Muslims of the time. First, al-Jah̄ ̣iz’̣ dispute is not directly with Christians, but with
Muslims who show them too much respect and liberality. Second, he must reframe
certain facts about Christians that are too generally accepted to contradict, including
memories of Arabs’ pre-Islamic and early Islamic contacts with Christians, and
Christian intellectuals’ crucial role in perpetuating Greek scienti#c works. He turns
these favorable perceptions into liabilities, arguing that Christians’ intellectualism
diverts weak Muslims from the faith and their social position violates Christian-Muslim
agreements. Finally, in contrast to the jurists’ approach, he argues for enforcing the
original intention of these agreements rather than trying to demonstrate speci#c
historical stipulations.
Al-Jah̄ ̣iz’̣ ideology aligns with al-Mutawakkil’s Qurʾanically charged edicts, in
that Christians, far from being “closest in friendship” (5:82), are those with whom
believers must not make any alliance (5:51). As such, the “Refutation” reveals the
battle lines between more lenient, popular Muslim attitudes and a stricter position
promoted by al-Jah̄ ̣iz ̣and enforced by al-Mutawakkil.
This dissertation by Nathan P. Gibson ful#lls the dissertation requirement for the
doctoral degree in Semitic and Egyptian Languages and Literatures approved by Sidney
H. Gri$th, S.T., Ph.D., as Director, and by Shawqi N. Talia, Ph.D., and Wilhelmus
Valkenberg, Ph.D., as Readers.
______________________________________________________
Sidney H. Gri$th, Ph.D.
______________________________________________________
Shawqi N. Talia, Ph.D.
______________________________________________________
Wilhelmus Valkenberg, Ph.D
ii
To my family,
with gratitude for their un$agging support—
especially my wife,
who cheered me on every step of the way
iii
Contents
Chapter
ILLUSTRATIONS.......................................................................vii
ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................ix
CONVENTIONS...........................................................................x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................xii
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................1
Theology & Culture..........................................................1
Literature Review ............................................................3
Textual History, Editions, and Translations..........3
The “Refutation” as Theology...............................6
The “Refutation” as Literature, History,
and Argumentation...............................................7
Overview of Chapters....................................................11
PART I: AL-JĀḤIẒ AND HIS WORLD
ONE AL-JĀḤIẒ’ LIFE.........................................................................18
Sources...........................................................................19
Education.......................................................................20
Writings and Patronage.................................................26
Conclusions....................................................................34
TWO DATING THE “REFUTATION”..................................................35
The Dilemma.................................................................35
Animals (Kitab̄ al-Ḥayawan̄ ): Before or After 847?.........38
One or Two “Refutations”?............................................41
Extant “Refutation” Equal to ... ?...................................43
Conclusions....................................................................49
THREE CRAFTING THE “REFUTATION”..............................................50
I. Introduction................................................................54
A. Invocation (Praise).........................................54
B. Acknowledgement of Letter............................54
C. Presentation of Christian Arguments..............59
iv
Chapter
B’. Intended Response to Letter...........................61
A’. Invocation (Prayer)........................................63
II. Response to Muslim Preferences
toward Christians...........................................................64
A. Presentation and Rebuttal of Muslim
Preferences toward Christians.............................64
B. Counterargument about Muslim
Preferences toward Christians.............................66
III. Response to Christian Arguments.............................73
A. Response to Argument that Jesus
Did Not Speak in Cradle......................................75
B. Response to Argument that if God
Could Take a Friend He Could Take a Son..........75
C. Response to Argument that Muslims
Inaccurately Accuse Other Religions...................76
D. Response to Argument that Qurʾan
Di&erentiates Jesus from Ordinary Humans.......77
IV. Conclusion................................................................79
PART II: THE PROFILE OF CHRISTIANS IN THE “REFUTATION”
FOUR UNDERMINING THE BIASES....................................................83
Introduction and Methodology......................................83
Polemic as Historical Source Material?...............86
Argumentation Analysis......................................89
The Opposing Standpoints.............................................92
Christians and Jews in Muslim Memory........................95
Christians and Jews in Medina and Abyssinia....95
Christians and Jews in al-Maʾ̄ ida.........................99
Respect for Christians among Arab Tribes........102
Implications of the Historical Argument...........111
A Qurʾanic Reading of Christians’
“Sovereignty” (Mulk)...................................................113
Christians’ Contemporary Relationship to Muslims.....116
Christian Intellectualism...................................117
Christians’ Hereditary Traits.............................126
Conclusions..................................................................132
FIVE REVERSING THE BIASES........................................................136
Turning the Tables.......................................................136
Christians Transgressing their Stipulated Role............139
Comparative Perspectives on
Dhimm& ̄Regulations...........................................143
v
Christians in Muslim Courts..............................170
The Arguments about Christians as Dhimm&s̄ ....180
Christians Confusing Weak Muslims with Heresy........185
Christians Outnumbering the Other Communities.......191
Christians Practicing Castration...................................194
Christians De#ling Society...........................................198
Conclusions..................................................................202
CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................205
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................210
Primary Sources...........................................................210
Secondary Sources.......................................................219
vi
Illustrations
Figures
1. The structure of “The Refutation of Christians” 53
2. Detailed structure of Part I of “The Refutation of Christians” 66
3. Detailed structure of Part II of “The Refutation of Christians” 74
4. Diagramming argumentation using the Pragma-Dialectical Approach 91
5. Example argumentation diagram 92
6. Distance from the #rst Muslims as a deciding factor 97
7. Christians’ help to Muslim refugees as a factor 99
8. Disassociation of contemporary Christians from the Nasạ r̄ a ̄
of Q. 5:82-85 102
9. Arabs’ historical preference for Christians 105
10.Arabs’ historical respect for Christian individuals 109
11.Arabs’ historical kinship to Christians versus Jews 111
12.Comparison of Christian and Jewish intellectual engagement 118
13.Invalidating Christians’ intellectual credentials 122
14.The danger of Christian intellectualism 126
15.The religious versus hereditary merits of Christians and Jews 129
16.Hereditary traits of Christians and Jews compared 132
17.Overview of argumentation that Christians harm the community
more than Jews 137
18.Christians’ impunity in violating agreements with Muslims 181
vii
19.Christian violations of their agreements with Muslims 184
20.The case against leniency toward Christians by Muslim judges 185
21.Christians’ responsibility for heretical confusion (part 1) 188
22.Christians’ responsibility for heretical confusion (part 2) 190
23.The demographic threat 194
24.Castration as evidence of Christian depravity 197
25.Christian impurities as a threat of de#lement 200
Tables
1. Comparison of topics in sources about dhimm’ ̄regulations 168
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