The Red Sneakers Effect

21 Pages·2013·0.41 MB·English

Journal of Consumer Research, Inc.
The Red Sneakers Effect: Inferring Status and Competence from Signals of Nonconformity
Author(s): Silvia Bellezza, Francesca Gino, and Anat Keinan
Source: Journal of Consumer Research, (-Not available-), p. 000
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The Red Sneakers Effect: Inferring Status
and Competence from Signals of
Nonconformity
SILVIA BELLEZZA
FRANCESCA GINO
ANAT KEINAN
This research examines how peoplereacttononconformingbehaviors,suchas
entering a luxury boutique wearing gym clothes rather than an elegant outfit or
wearingredsneakersinaprofessionalsetting.Nonconformingbehaviors,ascostly
andvisiblesignals,canactasaparticularformofconspicuousconsumptionand
leadtopositiveinferencesofstatusandcompetenceintheeyesofothers.Aseries
ofstudiesdemonstratesthatpeopleconferhigherstatusandcompetencetonon-
conformingratherthanconformingindividuals.Thesepositiveinferencesderived
fromsignalsofnonconformityaremediatedbyperceivedautonomyandmoderated
byindividualdifferencesinneedforuniquenessintheobservers.Aninvestigation
ofboundaryconditionsdemonstratesthatthepositiveinferencesdisappearwhen
theobserverisunfamiliarwiththeenvironment,whenthenonconformingbehavior
is depicted as unintentional, andintheabsenceofexpectednormsandshared
standardsofformalconduct.
I
Yoursweats,PJsandflip-flopsarelosingyou n both professional and nonprofessional settings, indi-
money! . . . Do you crave more confidence, vidualsoftenmakeasignificantefforttolearnandadhere
respect and power? . . . Find out how image to dress codes, etiquette, and other written and unwritten
connects to success.(EveMichaels,authorof
standards of behavior. Conformity to such rules and social
Dress Code)
norms is driven by a desire to gain social acceptance and
I have a number of super-successful Silicon status(seeCialdiniandGoldstein2004)andavoidnegative
Valleyclientswhodressinrippeddenim,Vans sanctionssuchassocialdisapproval,ridicule,andexclusion
shoes, and T-shirts. They are worth hundreds (Kruglanski and Webster 1991; Levine 1989; Miller and
ofmillions,evenmore,butit’sastatussymbol Anderson 1979; Schachter 1951). In the present research,
to dress like you’re homeless to attend board we propose that under certain conditions, nonconforming
meetings. (Tom Searcy, CBS Moneywatch)
behaviors can be more beneficial than efforts to conform
and can signal higher status and competence to others. We
arguethatwhileunintentionalviolationsofnormativecodes
and etiquette can indeed result in negative inferences and
Silvia Bellezza ([email protected]) is a doctoral candidate in mar-
attributions,whenthedeviantbehaviorappearstobedelib-
keting,FrancescaGino([email protected])isassociateprofessorofbusiness
erate, it can lead to higher rather than lower status and
administration,andAnatKeinan([email protected])isassociateprofessor
of marketing at the Harvard Business School, Boston, MA 02163. The competence inferences.
authors are grateful for helpful comments received from participants in Since nonconformity often has a social cost (e.g., Levine
seminarsandlabgroupsatHarvardandMIT.TheythankJohnT.Gourville, 1989; Schachter 1951), observers may infer that a noncon-
MaxH.Bazerman,ZoeChance,MichaelI.Norton,andNatalieZakarian forming individual is in a powerful position that allows her
fortheirconstructivefeedbackonearlierdraftsofthearticle.Thearticle toriskthesocialcostsofnonconformitywithoutfearoflosing
isbasedonpartofthefirstauthor’sdissertation. her place in the social hierarchy. Signaling theory suggests
Mary Frances Luce served as editor and Rebecca Ratner served as as- that, for a signal to be effective, it must be costly and ob-
sociateeditorforthisarticle. servablebyothers(Feltovich,Harbaugh,andTo2002;Spence
1973; Zahavi and Zahavi 1997). We propose that noncon-
ElectronicallypublishedDecember18,2013
forming behaviors, as costly and observablesignals,canact
000
(cid:2)2013byJOURNALOFCONSUMERRESEARCH,Inc.●Vol.41●June2014
Allrightsreserved.0093-5301/2014/4101-0003$10.00.DOI:10.1086/674870
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000 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
asaparticularformofconspicuousconsumptionandleadto THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
inferencesofstatusandcompetencebyobservers.Suchpos-
itiveinferencesareconsistentwithVeblen’sclassictheoryof Society has powerful formal and informal mechanisms
that motivate individuals to conform to social norms and
conspicuous consumption (1899/1994), which suggests that
expectations regarding appropriate conduct. While confor-
individualsdisplaystatusthroughtheprominent,visibleevi-
mityisrewardedwithgroupacceptanceandsocialinclusion
dence of their ability to afford luxury goods. Similarly, we
(see Cialdini and Goldstein 2004), nonconformity can be
argue that nonconformity can lead to inferences of higher
risky and costly, often leading to social disapproval, rejec-
status and greatercompetencebyprovidingvisibleevidence
tion, and punishment (Anderson et al. 2006, 2008; Levine
thatindividualscanaffordtofollowtheirownvolition.Based
1989; Lin et al. 2013; Marques et al. 2001;MillerandAn-
on some of our experimental stimuli for nonconformity, we
derson 1979; Schachter 1951; Wilson 1979). The powerof
label this potential positive outcome of nonconforming be-
theserewardsandsanctionshasbeendemonstratedinclassic
haviors the “red sneakers effect.”
social psychology experiments. For example, in Asch’s
Asapreliminarytest,wefirstexploretherelationshipbe- (1956)well-knownstudiesexaminingtheconformityofjudg-
tweennonconformityandstatusinthefieldbyexaminingthe mentsandopinionsingroups,participantsoftenconformed
dress style of conference participants and their professional because it was easier to follow the crowd than to face the
status. Next, five lab and field studies explore how noncon- consequences of going against it (Crutchfield 1955). More
forming behavior is perceived by others. In particular,when powerful and disturbing evidence comes from Zimbardo’s
do people interpret nonconformity as a signal of status and (1973) prison experiment, in which volunteers who were
competence, and what are the processesunderlyingsuchin- randomly assigned the roles of “guards” or “prisoners”be-
ferences? Our studies explore various consumption environ- haved accordingly, and Milgram’s(1963)obedienceexper-
ments and populations, including shop assistants at high-end iments, which demonstrated that peoplereadilyconformto
boutiques, business executives, and college students. the social roles they are expected to play.
Our investigation ofpsychologicalprocessesrevealsthat In the context of consumer behavior, research demon-
strates that assimilation and conformity motives can drive
inferences of status and competence derived from signals
consumptionpracticesandchoicesinthemarketplace.Con-
ofnonconformityaremediatedbyperceivedautonomy.We
sumersaremotivatedtobehavelikethosearoundthemand
demonstrate that nonconformity can fuel perceptions of
make choices that are consistent with their in-group dueto
status and competence in the eyes of others because devi-
a need to increase affiliation and express desired identities
ating from the norm signals that one has the autonomy
(Bearden, Netemeyer, and Teel 1989; Escalas and Bettman
needed to act according to one’s own inclinations and to
2003, 2005; McFerran et al. 2010a, 2010b). In particular,
bearthecostofnonconformity.Moreover,weshowthatthe
individuals who feel socially excludedandlonelyaremore
relationship between a person’s nonconforming behavior
likely to conform in an effort to avoid the negative evalu-
and observers’ perceptions of enhanced status and compe- ations of others by selecting products endorsed by most
tenceismoderatedbyobservers’needforuniqueness(Sny- consumers (Mead et al. 2011; Wang, Zhu, and Shiv 2012).
derandFromkin1977),suchthatobserverswithhighlevels Given these powerful social mechanisms, researchers
of need for uniqueness tend to confer greater status and acrossdisciplines—includingsociology,socialpsychology,
competence to nonconforming behaviors as compared to economics, and marketing—havedevotedtheirattentionto
observers with low needs for uniqueness. We further in- the study of nonconformity and its antecedents. Noncon-
vestigateboundaryconditionsoftheeffectbymanipulating formity is generally defined as a behavior or belief that is
and measuring additional characteristics of the observers, inconsistentwithnormsorstandards(Nail,Macdonald,and
the environment, and the nonconforming behavior. Levy2000).Intheconsumerpsychologyliterature,theten-
Our research contributes to the conspicuous consumption dency to engage in nonconforming consumption has been
associatedwithadesiretodistancetheselffromdissimilar,
literatureandtoresearchonnonconformity.First,weextend
disliked, or unattractive others or from out-group members
consumer behavior research analyzing alternativeandcoun-
(BergerandHeath2007,2008;WhiteandDahl2006,2007)
terintuitive ways to display status, such as using less recog-
or to establish one’suniquenessanddistinctiveness(Ariely
nizable but more expensive luxury brands and products or
and Levav 2000; Griskevicius et al. 2006; Simonson and
smallerlogos(BergerandWard2010;Han,Nunes,andDreze
Nowlis 2000; Snyder and Fromkin 1977).
2010). Specifically, we investigate a different kind of con-
While this literature has focused primarily on the ante-
sumer behavior and an alternative way of displaying status
cedentsofthenonconformingindividual’sbehaviors,inour
(e.g.,violatingadresscoderatherthanbuyingsubtlybranded
workweshiftthefocusofanalysistohowexternalobservers
but expensive luxury products). Second, in contrast to most perceiveandinterpretnonconformingbehaviorsintermsof
nonconformity research, whichhasfocusedonnonconform- status and competence. That is, rather than examining in-
ing individuals and the antecedents for their behavior, we dividuals’decisionstoconformornotconform,weexamine
focusontheconsequencesofnonconformityandthepercep- theconsequencesofdeviatingfromthenormintheeyesof
tions of external observers. Importantly, we concentrate on others. A vast body of research on impression formation
nonconformity-based inferences of status and competence. and status beliefs suggests that individuals rapidly make
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BELLEZZA, GINO, AND KEINAN 000
inferences and judgments of others’ competenceandstatus mality objectively, we created a composite score ranging
basedonobservablesignals,suchasappearance,verbaland from a minimum of 0 points (less formal) to a maximum
nonverbal behaviors, attitudes, and consumption choices of4points(moreformal)bydiscretelycodingfourclothing
(Ambady and Rosenthal 1993; Dubois et al. 2012; Hall et elements worn by each participant. More specifically, we
al. 2005; Knapp et al. 2009; Magee 2009; Ridgeway and adopted the following scoring system: 1 point for wearing
Correll2006;Ridgewayetal.1998;SchmidMastandHall a blazer, 0 points otherwise; 1 point for wearing a button-
2004; Todorov et al. 2005). We contribute to this literature downshirtoradress,0pointsotherwise(e.g.,foraT-shirt);
by investigating the conditions under which lay observers 1 point for wearing formal pants, 0 points otherwise (e.g.,
makenonconformity-basedinferencesoftargets’economic, for jeans); 1 point for wearing dress shoes, 0 points oth-
professional, and social status. erwise (e.g., for sneakers). We then collected data on the
numberofpublicationsforeachscholarinoursample(based
Nonconformity, Status, and Competence oninformationavailableonline)asanobjectivemeasureof
statusandcompetenceintheacademiccommunity.Tocon-
As compared to low-status individuals, high-status indi- trolforgenderandage,wealsocodedthesevariables(mea-
viduals have wider latitude for deviation and are relatively suring age by years since PhD graduation) and included
freefromsocialconstraints(Feshbach1967;Hollander1958; them in our regression analysis. We counted participants’
Peterson and Kern 1996; Phillips and Zuckerman2001).A total number of peer-reviewed publications in academic
group member can be said to earn and maintain increased journals and their number of publications in top marketing
status through “idiosyncratic credits,” or an accumulation journals for consumer behavior scholars, namely,theJour-
ofpositiveimpressionsinthemindsoftherestofthegroup nal of Consumer Research, the Journal of Marketing Re-
(Hollander 1958). This accumulation is reflected in thede- search, Marketing Science, the Journal of Marketing, Sci-
gree to which the individualcan deviatefromgroupnorms ence,PsychologicalScience,andtheJournalofPersonality
without sanction. Thus, unlike low-status group members, and Social Psychology. We found that a less-conforming
high-statusmembersandpowerfulindividualscanaffordto dress style was significantly correlated with research pro-
deviate from conventional behavior and common expecta- ductivity(rp(cid:2).35,p!.01).Interestingly,thiscorrelation
tionswithoutsocialdisapproval(Cartwright1959;Galinsky was even stronger when focusing on publications in top
et al. 2008; Haslam 2004; Sherif and Sherif 1964). marketing journals (r p (cid:2).53, p ! .001). These results,
More specifically, in the domain of consumption, high- which hold even when controlling for gender and age,1 in-
statusindividualsmayvoluntarilydowngradetheirlifestyle dicate that higher status and performance within a given
and adopt nonconforming consumption habits,suchasma- communityiscorrelatedwithastrongertendencytodeviate
terial frugality, “omnivoreness” (consuming a broad range fromaconformingdresscode(e.g.,wearingjeans,sneakers,
ofproducts),andsimplicity(ArnouldandThompson2005; T-shirts rather than professional attire). Although these re-
Brooks1981;Holt1998;PetersonandKern1996;Solomon sults are correlational, they are consistentwithHollander’s
1999). For example, high-status individuals may choose to (1958) theoretical account that high-status and well-re-
dressinformallyinbusinesssettings.CertainCEOsofmajor spected individuals tend to engage in nonconforming be-
corporations, including Microsoft’s Bill Gates and Face- haviors. But are these nonconforming behaviors actually
book’sMarkZuckerberg,havebeenknowntoappearwith- interpreted as a signal of status and competence by third-
outtiesorevenwearingsweatshirtsatinterviewsandformal partyobservers?Andifso,whenandwhydoesthishappen?
gatherings such as the World Economic Forum (Etzioni We propose that nonconforming behavior can act as a
2004); some successful entrepreneurs have a habit of at- particular form of conspicuous consumption and lead to
tending their companies’ board meetings in casual dress, perceptions of enhanced status and competence in theeyes
such as jeans and sneakers (Searcy 2011). of others. Observers may infer that a nonconforming indi-
Toprovideempiricalevidenceoftherelationshipbetween vidual is in a more powerful position that allows her to
nonconformity to dress codes and status and competence, follow her volition in autonomy and bear the cost of de-
we conducted a pilot observational study examining the viating from the norm. Research suggests that high-status
potentialrelationshipbetweenthedressstyleofparticipants individuals tend to avoid blatant and conspicuous displays
in a professional academic conference and the number of of wealth, status,orpersonalaccomplishments,andinstead
articlesthey had published.Inthispilotstudy,wefocuson seekalternativewaystodifferentiatethemselvesfromlower-
thelinkbetweenactualstatusandnonconformingbehavior; status individuals (Berger and Ward 2010; Feltovich et al.
inourremainingstudies,wefocusonthelinkbetweennon- 2002; Han et al. 2010). For example, sophisticated luxury
conformingbehaviorandobservers’perceptionsofstatusand consumers elect to use less known and less conspicuous
competence.Wepredictedthatconferenceparticipantswho
had gained greater status through research productivity
1 Inalinearregression,formalityscorewasregressedonnumberof
would dress more casually than other participants. Partici-
toppublications,gender(dummycoded1formale,0forfemale),andage.
pants were 76 randomly selectedattendeesofthe2011As-
The final model was significant (R2 p .29, F(3, 67) p 8.9, p ! .001).
sociation for Consumer Research conference. We recorded
Therewasasignificanteffectofnumberoftoppublications(b p
publications
the names of participants, as indicated on their name tags, (cid:2).47, t(67) p (cid:2)2.8, p ! .01), whereas the other independent variables
and coded the formality of their dress. To code dress for- werenotsignificant(b p(cid:2).11,NS;b p(cid:2).02,NS).
gender age
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000 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
luxury brands. We investigate the conditions under which uniqueness reflects individual differences in motivations for
nonconforming behaviors, such as entering a luxury bou- distinguishing the self via consumer goodsthatmanifestthe
tique wearing gym clothes rather than an elegant outfit or willfulpursuitofdifferentnessrelativetoothers(Tian,Bear-
wearing red sneakersin aprofessionalsetting,canserveas den,andHunter2001).Individualswithahighlevelofneed
an alternative, nonconventional form of conspicuous con- foruniquenessareparticularlysensitivetothedegreetowhich
sumption. In line with research on status beliefs and im- they are seen as similar to others and are more likely than
pression formation (Hollander1958;RidgewayandCorrell others to exhibit behaviors that establish a sense of special-
2006;Ridgewayetal.1998),weexamineinferencesofboth ness, such as acquiring unique or scarce products (Snyder
statusandcompetence.Statusisdefinedasahigherposition 1992).
compared to others on some dimension (wealth, hierarchy, Previous research on uniqueness motive demonstrates its
etc.), and it relates to the respect one has in the eyes of impact on consumption choices and behavior (Ariely and
others (Magee and Galinsky 2008). Competence refers to Levav 2000; Chan et al. 2012; Cheema and Kaikati 2010;
the perceived ability to successfully pursue and perform Irmak et al. 2010; Lynn and Harris 1997; Maimaran and
specific tasks (Fiske et al. 2002). Wheeler2008;RatnerandKahn2002;SimonsonandNowlis
Wearguethatinferencesofgreaterstatusandcompetence 2000; White and Argo 2011). For example, consumerswith
from nonconforming behavior result from observers’ attri- ahighlevelofneedforuniquenesstendtopreferobjectsthat
butions of the nonconforming individual’s autonomy. Au- deviatefromnormsoverthosethatcomplywithnorms(Lynn
tonomy refers to self-governanceandself-regulation(Ryan andHarris1997;SnyderandFromkin1977;Tianetal.2001);
and Lynch 1989). Thecentral ideaintheconceptofauton- these consumers often demonstrate nonconforming prefer-
omy isindicatedbytheetymologyoftheterm:autos(self) encesingroupcontextstodistinguishthemselvesfromothers
andnomos(ruleorlaw).Thusautonomousindividualstend (Ariely and Levav 2000). Our studies measure observers’
to act independently and behave according to their own need for uniqueness and examine how suchuniquenessmo-
rules. The significance of freedom and autonomy is built tives impact the inferences observers make aboutanoncon-
into the founding documents of the United States, and the formingindividual.Thatis,ratherthanexamininghowneed
idea that individuals are independent and autonomous is for uniqueness impacts consumers’ decision to conform or
pervasive and generally greatly admired (Dworkin 1988; notconform,weexaminehowitimpactstheinferencesthey
MarkusandSchwartz2010).EspeciallyinWesterncultures make about other individuals who deviate.
that place high value on individualism and independence, Wehypothesizethatindividualdifferencesrelatedtoneed
resisting group pressure can be perceived as a brave and for uniqueness, as measured through the Tian et al. (2001)
bold gesture (Baumeister 1982; Galinsky et al. 2008; Kim scale, will moderate the red sneakers effect. Research on
and Markus 1999). Here, we suggest that nonconformity uniquenessemphasizesthatpeoplewhoscorerelativelyhigh
can be perceived as admirable behavior that reflects high onneedforuniquenessoftendeviatefromthenorminorder
levels of autonomy and control. While being easily influ- toasserttheirdifferentness,affirmstrongcharacterand,thus,
encedbyothersisnotanadmiredpersonaltrait(seeJetten, enhance their social-image (Gross 1977; Tian et al. 2001).
Hornsey, and Adarves-Yorno 2006), deviating from the Moreover, high need-for-uniqueness individuals are rela-
norm signals freedom and autonomy from the pressure to tively free from social constraints imparted by others and
conform (Phillips and Zuckerman 2001; Thompson et al. exhibithighlevelsofautonomy(SnyderandFromkin1977).
2006) and thus can fuel positive inferences in the eyes of Accordingly, we expect those individuals who score high
others(VanKleefetal.2011;SimonsonandNowlis2000). on need for uniqueness to associate (as external observers)
Hence, we predict thatobserverswillinferenhancedstatus higherautonomy,status,andcompetencewithnonconform-
andcompetencefromsignalsofnonconformitybecausethey ing behaviors relative to individuals with low need for
believe that nonconforming individualshavegreaterauton- uniqueness. Therefore, we predict that:
omytoactaccordingtotheirownvolitionandbearthecost
of nonconforming: H3: Positive inferences of status and competenceand
attributionsofautonomyfromnonconformingbe-
H1: Nonconforming behavior can lead to greater in- havior will be moderated by observers’ need for
ferencesofstatusandcompetenceascomparedto uniqueness;observerswithhighlevelsofneedfor
conforming behavior. uniqueness will infer more status, competence,
and autonomy from nonconforming rather than
H2: Positiveinferencesofstatusandcompetencefrom
conforming behavior as compared to observers
nonconforming behaviorwillbemediatedbyob-
with low levels of need for uniqueness.
servers’ attributions of the nonconforming indi-
vidual’s autonomy.
Wealsoexamineobservers’familiaritywiththeenviron-
ment and consumption context as an important boundary
Characteristics of the Observers. We investigatetheim- condition for the red sneakers effect. Familiarity with the
pact of individualdifferencesinobservers’needforunique- context is critical in verifying and understandingthesignal
ness (Nail et al. 2000; Snyder and Fromkin 1977) on how of nonconformity (Hollander 1958). In the consumer be-
theyinterpretsignalsofnonconformity.Consumers’needfor haviordomain,individualswhoarefamiliarwiththecontext
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BELLEZZA, GINO, AND KEINAN 000
are capable of finer, more articulated discriminationinthat CharacteristicsoftheNonconformingBehavior. Wein-
specific environment compared to those who are not and vestigate the extent to which a specific nonconforming be-
theyrelylessontheownershipofprototypicalproductsym- havior is perceived as deliberate and intentional asanother
bols (Solomon 1999). Accordingly, we predict that only importantboundaryconditionfortheredsneakerseffect.A
observers who are familiar with the consumption context behavior is defined as deliberate if the actor set outtopro-
and have experience observing and interpreting individu- duce the action (Malle and Knobe 1997), and an intention
als’behaviorinthisspecificcontextwillinfergreaterstatus is generally understood as a determination to engage in a
andcompetencefromsignalsofnonconformityratherthan particular behavior (Atkinson 1964). We suggest that ob-
from signals of conformity. For example, in the setting of servers attribute heightened status and competence to non-
our observationalstudy, conferenceparticipantsmayinfer conformity when they believe that the nonconforming in-
thattheircolleaguesareviolatingthedresscodewiththeir dividualispurposelydeviatingfromanaccepted,established
casualattire,butobserverswhoarenotpartofthisspecific norm.Thatis,theobserverassumesthatthenonconforming
community or who have no past experience with it will individual is both aware of the norm and potentially able
not make such attributions. Instead, they might infer that to conform, but deliberately decided to adopt a noncon-
nonconforming individuals are unaware of the dress code forming conduct. In contrast, we expect that when a non-
or cannot afford nicer clothes. Thus, inferences of status conforming behavior is perceived as unintentional, it will
and competence require the observer to be somewhat fa- nolongerbeassociatedwithenhancedperceptionsofstatus
miliar with the environment. We therefore predict that: and competence. For example, when a nonconforming be-
haviorappearsdictatedbylackofabetteralternative(asin
H4: Nonconforming behavior will be interpreted as a
thecaseofobservingapoorlydressedpersonwhoishome-
positive signal of status and competence as long
less)ratherthanbyadeliberatedresschoice,itwillnotlead
as the observer is familiar with the environment.
to positive inferences in the eyes of others.
Similarly, we expect enhanced attributions of autonomy
Characteristics of the Environment. Nonconformity sig- derived from signals of nonconformity to dissipate when
nalscanonlyoccurinenvironmentsthathavestrongnorms thedeviantbehaviorisperceivedasunintentional.Thispre-
and shared standards, with a social expectation of confor- dictionisinlinewithresearchsuggestingthatintentionality
mitytothesenorms(WalkerandHeyns1962).Forexample, and autonomy are strongly and positively associated (Deci
formal and prestigious contexts (e.g., a black-tie event, a and Ryan 1987). Thus, we hypothesize that:
business meeting) are typically characterized by an official
H6: When a specific nonconforming behavior is per-
dress code or behavioral etiquette. Accordingly, in all our
ceived as unintentional, it will no longer be as-
experimentsweexamineprestigesettingswithexpectednorms
sociated with status, competence, and autonomy.
of appropriate conduct (e.g., luxury boutiques, golf clubs,
professionalsymposiumsatbusinessschools),andwedefine
nonconforming behaviors as those that deviate from such
behavioral standards. Consistent with the notion that indi- Overview of the Present Research
viduals integrate specific environmental information into
We test our hypotheses and theoretical framework, de-
theiroverallevaluations,inferences,andchoices(Belk1975;
picted in figure 1, in five laboratory and field studies that
Herr 1989; Swait and Adamowicz 2001), we investigate
employdifferenttypesofnonconformityanddifferentpop-
theroleofcontextonperceptionsofstatusandcompetence
ulations of participants. Resistance to conformity pressures
derived from signals of nonconformity. We suggest that
cantakedistinctformsacrossindividuals.Ofparticularrel-
nonconformityislikelytofuelperceptionsofgreaterstatus
evancetoourworkisTianetal.’s(2001)conceptualization,
and competenceinprestigiouscontexts,withexpectedbe-
whichsuggeststhatconsumersexhibitthreemainbehavioral
havioral norms and relatively high standards of conduct.
manifestations of nonconformity. First, “creative choice
For example, in the setting of our first study, luxury bou-
counterconformity”referstothetendencyofsomeconsum-
tiques, we find that shop assistants attribute higher poten-
ers to seek social differentnessbyselectingoriginal,novel,
tial to a prospect wearing casual gymclothingthantoone
oruniqueconsumergoods(e.g.,wearingacolorful,unusual
wearing an elegant dress. We would not expect to detect
tie to a formal event). Second, “unpopular choice counter-
a similar red sneakers effect in the context of an ordinary
conformity” reflects the selection or use of products and
storethatlackstheexpectednormofbeingnicelydressed.
brands that strongly violate and disrupt existing norms of
Thus, weproposethatanonconformingbehaviorwillsig-
proper conduct (e.g., wearing a tie around one’s head in a
nalstatusandcompetenceintheeyesofothersinprestige
formal context). Finally, “avoidanceof similarity”entailsa
contextswithsharedstandardsofformalconduct.Wepre-
downgradingofone’sconsumptionstyleandreferstoaloss
dict that:
of interest in, or discontinued use of, possessions to move
H5: Nonconforming behavior will lead to higher in- awayfromthenormandreestablishone’sdifferentness(e.g.,
ferences of status and competence in prestigious not wearing a tie in a formal context). In our research, we
contexts with expected norms than in less pres- focusonbehavioraldimensionsofnonconformitythatentail
tigious contexts. some deviance from the norm but are not perceived as a
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000 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
FIGURE1 alizations of nonconforming behavior to luxury stores. In
study 1A, we manipulate nonconformity through style of
THEORETICALFRAMEWORKANDHYPOTHESES dress (e.g., entering the store wearing a gym outfit vs. a
dress),andinstudy1Bweexamineconsumers’useofwell-
known brand names (e.g., wearing a Swatch watch vs. a
Rolex). We selected luxury boutiques as an experimental
setting due to their established and commonly perceived
behavioral norm of elegant dress. Thus, we expect that in
thisspecificcontext,ratherthaninordinarystores,acasual
dressstylewillstandoutandwillbeperceivedasadeviation
from the established standard. Moreover, we consider the
case of people who are either familiar or less familiarwith
the context being examined by comparing the responsesof
two samples: shop assistants in luxury shops in downtown
Milan, Italy, and women recruited in Milan’s central train
station. We predict that participants who are familiar with
the context (i.e., the shop assistants) will confer greater
status to the nonconforming client rather than to the con-
formingone.However,weexpecttheeffecttobeattenuated
or even reversed for participantswhoarelessfamiliarwith
strong disruption and violation of the norm. Accordingly,
thecontext(i.e.,pedestriansrecruitedatthecentralstation).
the manipulations inourstudiescenteroncreativenoncon-
Prior to running studies 1A and 1B, we conducted an ex-
formityandavoidanceofsimilarity—thatis,manifestations
ploratory interview in Rome with the store manager of a
of nonconformity within the realm of commonly accepted
prestigious luxury brand. According to him, shoppers at
behaviors.
high-end boutiques generally wear elegant and expensive
Study1examinestheresponsesofshopassistantsinlux-
clothing,inkeepingwiththestore’sluxuryatmosphere.How-
ury boutiques in Milan, Italy, and illustrates that noncon-
ever, he admitted that his store’s very top clientele also
formity, as compared to conformity, leads to inferences of
includescustomerswhodressquitecasually.Therefore,we
higher status among individuals who are familiar with the
expectshopassistantsinluxuryboutiques,whoarefamiliar
environment.Study2investigatestheeffectofnonconform-
with the environment and are motivated to determine the
ity and the role of the prestige context in a professional
status of potential customers, to be able to detect and in-
setting by testing students’ responses to the dress style of
terpret the unconventional behavior of potential customers
their professors. Study 3 delves into the underlying mecha-
as a signal of status.
nisms of the red sneakerseffectanddemonstratesthatinfer-
encesofstatusandcompetencearemediatedbytheautonomy Method. We recruited 109 female adults in downtown
thatparticipantsperceiveintheindividual’snonconforming Milan.AllparticipantsrespondedtoashortsurveyinItalian
behavior. Moreover, this study shows that the positive in- and received a pen for participating in the study. Fifty-two
ferencesdissipatewhenthenonconformingbehaviorisper- participantswereshopassistantsworkinginboutiquessell-
ceived as unintentional. Study 4 examines the moderating ingluxurybrandssuchasArmani,Burberry,ChristianDior,
role of observers’ need for uniqueness and shows that par- La Perla, Les Copains, and Valentino (i.e., individuals fa-
ticipants with high levels of need for uniqueness tend to miliar with the environment of a high-end boutique). On
attributemorestatusandcompetencetononconformingbe- average, shop assistants had 12 years of experience in the
haviors as compared to participants with lower needs for fashion sector and an estimated net income ranging from
uniqueness. Finally, in a follow-up study we increase the i14,400 to i16,800 per year. The other 57 female partici-
validity of our findings by examining nonconformity and pantswererecruitedatMilan’scentralstation(i.e.,individ-
need for uniqueness outside the laboratory. uals less familiar with the environment of a high-end bou-
tique). Theestimatedaveragenetincomeforwomenliving
RESEARCH DESIGN AND FINDINGS in Milan is i15,800 (Registry Office Milan 2011). Thus,
bothgroupssharecomparabledemographicprofiles(gender,
Study 1: Status Inferences Based on a age, income, and nationality), but the first group is better
Nonconforming Dress Style acquainted with the environment of luxury boutiques than
the second group.
We begin our investigation by examining whether indi- Participantscompletedthestudyintheirownenvironment
viduals confer greater statustopeoplewhodonotconform (boutique or train station) and were randomly assigned to
to shared norms of behavior in a given context. We create one of two conditions: conforming versus nonconforming
vignettes that describe a potential client who enters an el- potentialclient.Participantsineachconditionreadavignette
egant boutique and engages in either conforming or non- aboutapotentialcliententeringaluxuryboutique.Instudy
conforming behavior. We employ two different operation- 1A,thetextread:“Imaginethatawomanisenteringaluxury
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BELLEZZA, GINO, AND KEINAN 000
boutique in downtown Milan during winter. She looks ap- FIGURE2
proximately 35 years old.” Participantsinthenonconform-
ing condition next read: “She is wearing gym clothes and STUDY1ARESULTS:THEEFFECTOFNONCONFORMITY
ajacket.”Participantsintheconformingconditionnextread: ANDFAMILIARITYWITHTHEENVIRONMENT
“She is wearing a dress and a fur coat.” After reading the
vignette, participantsansweredquestions,using1–7scales,
to assess whether they believed the individual described
could be a potential client at the luxury store and whether
she might be a VIP or a celebrity.Specifically,participants
answeredthreequestionsassessingthewoman’sstatusasa
luxury client: 1. “How likely is the woman described to
purchasesomethinginthestore?”(1pveryunlikely,7p
very likely). 2. “Imaginethatthewomandescribedwereto
buy something. Would she spend more or less than the av-
eragestoreclient?”(1plessthanaverage,7pmorethan
average). 3. “Can she afford the most expensive items in
the store?” (1 p definitely yes, 7 p definitely no). We
averaged the three items and used the resulting measureof
status as a luxury client as the first dependent variable in
our analyses. Next, participants answered one question as-
sessingtheclient’sperceivedstatusasacelebrity,thesecond
dependentvariable:“IsshelikelytobeaVIPoracelebrity?”
(1 p very unlikely, 7 p very likely). In study 1B, partic-
ipants in both conditions read: “Imagine that a woman is
enteringaluxuryboutiqueindowntownMilanduringsum-
mer. She looks approximately 35 years old.” Next, partic-
ipantsinthenonconformingconditionread:“Sheiswearing
plastic flip-flops and she has a Swatch on her wrist.” Par-
ticipants in theconformingconditionread:“Sheiswearing
sandalswithheelsandshehasaRolexonherwrist.”After
reading the description of the client, participants answered
the same questions as in study 1A.
Results(Study1A). A2(nonconformingvs.conforming
client)#2(familiarvs.unfamiliarobserver)between-sub-
jectsANOVAusingratingsofthepotentialasaluxuryclient
(a p .88) as the dependent variable revealed a significant
main effect for nonconformity (F(1, 104) p 4.9, p ! .05),
no main effect for familiarity (F(1, 104) p .82, NS), and
a significant interaction (F(1, 104) p 37.7, p ! .001) de-
betweenconditionsforparticipantsunfamiliarwiththelux-
picted in figure 2A. Shop assistants familiar with the en-
uryboutiques(M p4.0vs.M p4.3,NS).
vironmentgrantedgreaterstatustothenonconformingclient nonconforming conforming
rather than to the conforming client (M p 4.9vs. Results(Study1B). A2(nonconformingvs.conforming
nonconforming
M p 3.8, t(49) p 2.8, p ! .01). In contrast, partic- client)#2(familiarvs.unfamiliarobserver)between-sub-
conforming
ipants unfamiliar with the context granted less status to jects ANOVA using ratings of the status as a luxury client
the nonconforming client than to the conforming one (a p .74) as the dependent variable revealed a significant
(M p 3.5 vs. M p 5.7, t(55) p 5.8, p ! maineffectfornonconformity(F(1,104)p10.9,p!.001),
nonconforming conforming
.001).WeconductedasimilarANOVAusingcelebritystatus no main effect for familiarity (F(1, 104) p .02, NS), and
as the dependent variable and found a similar pattern of asignificantinteraction(F(1,104)p35.0,p!.001).Shop
results. The main effect for nonconformity was significant assistantsgrantedgreaterstatustothenonconformingclient
(F(1, 104) p 8.1, p ! .01), while the main effect for fa- thantotheconformingone(M p4.8vs.M
nonconforming conforming
miliarity was not (F(1, 104) p 1.7, NS). Consistent with p4.2,t(50)p2.1,p!.05);participantswithnofamiliarity
our predictions, we found a significant interaction between with the environment did just the opposite (M p
nonconforming
conformityandfamiliarity(F(1,104)p15.5,p!.001;see 3.4 vs. M p 5.6, t(54) p 5.9, p ! .001). A similar
conforming
fig. 2B). Shop assistants believed that the nonconforming ANOVA using perceived celebrity status as the dependent
client was more likely than the conforming client to be a variable revealed no main effect for nonconformity (F(1,
celebrity or a VIP (M p 4.9 vs. M p 2.5, 103) p 2.5, NS) or for familiarity (F(1, 103) p .96, NS)
nonconforming conforming
t(49) p 5.4, p !.001); there was no significant difference andasignificantinteractionbetweenthesetwofactors(F(1,
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000 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
103) p 7.9, p ! .01). Mimicking the results of study 1A, familiar with the particular environment, and weassessthe
shop assistants granted greaterstatustothenonconforming degree of their familiarity as a precondition.
client than to the conforming one (M p 4.6 vs.
nonconforming
M p 3.0, t(49) p 3.2, p !.01), and there was no
conforming Study 2: Nonconformity in Professional Settings
significant difference between conditions for pedestrians
(M p 3.9 vs. M p 4.4, NS).
nonconforming conforming In this study, we examine the effect of nonconforming
behaviorinamoreprofessionalcontextbytestingstudents’
Discussion. Consistent with our hypotheses, the results
responses to the dress style of their professors. In profes-
of study 1 show that observers grant higher status to a
sionalsettings,nonconformity,andcasualdressstyleinpar-
nonconformingindividualthantoaconformingone,aslong
ticular, are typically viewed as costly behaviors that could
as the observers are familiar with the environment. Specif-
potentially damage one’s employment or promotion pros-
ically,shopassistantsatluxuryboutiquesperceivedaclient
pects (De Souza et al. 2003; Michaels 2012). Given the
to be more likely to make a purchase and to be a celebrity
context,wemeasurestatusintermsofrespectbyothersand
when she was wearing gym clothesoraSwatchthanwhen
competenceintermsofworkplaceperformance.Inaddition,
shewaswearinganelegantdressoraRolex.Theeffectfor
weinvestigatetheroleofprestigeofthecontextbymanip-
pedestrians recruited at Milan’s central station was attenu-
ulating between-subjects the reputation of the setting de-
ated or even reversed. These participants, of similar back-
scribedintheexperiment.Wepredictthatstudentswillper-
ground but less familiar with the luxury boutique environ-
ceiveamaleprofessorwhowearsaT-shirtandisunshaven
ment,tendedtoperceivetheshopperwiththeelegantoutfit
(i.e., nonconforming) as having higher professional status
as being of higher or similar status relative to the poorly
andcompetencethanaprofessorwhowearsatieandshaved
dressed shopper. The shop assistants’ status inferences are
(i.e., conforming), butonly when theprofessorteachesata
consistent with research demonstrating that conspicuous
top school where established norms exist regarding formal
consumptionofbrandsandexplicituseofotherstatussym-
attire at work.
bols is often associated with low-status groups (Feltovich
et al. 2002; Han et al. 2010; Mazzocco et al. 2012). We
Method. Werecruited159respondents(55%female,M
analyzed shop assistants’ open-ended comments and con- p 23) at Harvard University in Boston who participatedaigne
ductedfollow-upquestionstoclarifytheirstatusinferences.
a series of unrelated lab studies. The vast majority of re-
Interestingly, the shop assistants in our study seemed to
spondents were current students at local universities (83%),
believe that the nonconforming client was purposely devi-
thus ensuring that our sample was familiar with the experi-
ating fromtheacceptednormofappropriatebehaviorinan
mentalstimuli(i.e.,descriptionsofprofessors).Werandomly
attempt to distinguish herself from the average shopper.
assigned participants to one of four conditions, in a 2 (con-
Someparticipantsinthenonconformingconditionbelieved, formingvs.nonconformingindividual)#2(prestigecontext
in the words of one of them, that poorly dressed shoppers
vs.nonprestigecontext)between-subjectsdesign.Wemanip-
areoften“playingaroleanddoingitonpurpose.”Oneshop
ulated the conformity of the dress style of the professor by
assistant stated that “wealthy people sometimes dress very
tellingparticipantsthattheprofessortypicallywearsatieand
badlytodemonstratesuperiority”andthat“ifyoudareenter
is clean-shaven (conforming) or that he typically wearsaT-
these boutiques so underdressed, you are definitely going
shirt and has a beard (nonconforming). To manipulate the
tobuysomething.”Incontrast,itdidnotoccurtopedestrians
prestigeofthecontext,wevariedwhetherornottheuniversity
that a shopper might purposely enter a luxury store poorly
theprofessorteachesatwasdescribedasatop-tieruniversity.
dressed. These remarks suggest that status inferences may
Participantsreadthefollowingdescription:“Mikeis45years
be driven by perceived deliberateness of the individual’s
old and teaches at a university [a top-tier university]. He
nonconforming behavior. The scenarios tested in thisstudy
typically wears a tie [a T-shirt] to work and is clean-shaven
bringtomindthefamousscenefromthefilmPrettyWoman
[hasabeard].”Participantsthenassessedtheprofessor’spro-
of Julia Roberts’s character shopping on Rodeo Drive in
fessionalstatusandcompetencebyansweringthreequestions.
Beverly Hills. Consistent with our conceptualization, the 1. “How well respected is Mike by his students?” (1 p not
character’s nonconforming dress style did not lead to in- respected atall,7pextremelywellrespected).2.“Howdo
ferences of high status by store clerks because it did not youexpecthimtoperforminclassasateacher?”(1ppoor,
appeartobeintentional.Wewilldirectlytestthisproposition 7 p excellent).3.“Howdoyouexpecthimtoperformasa
in study 3 by manipulating the extent to which noncon- researcher?” (1 p poor, 7 p excellent). We averaged the
forming behavior is depicted as deliberateorunintentional. three items (a p .80) and used theresultingmeasureasthe
In study 2, we seek to complement the findings of study
dependentvariableinouranalysis.Participantsalsoanswered
1bytestingourhypothesesinamorecontrolledlaboratory
amanipulationcheckforourconformitymanipulation:“How
environment. We will examine the consequences of non- conformingtohisworkenvironmentisMike’sstyle?”(1p
conformity through down-dressing inaprofessionalsetting not conforming at all, 7 p extremely conforming).
and the role of the prestige of the context with relatively
highstandardsofconduct.Sinceinstudy1wedemonstrated Results. The manipulation check confirmed that the
theboundaryconditionoffamiliaritywiththeenvironment, shaved professor wearing a tie was perceived to be signifi-
in thestudiesthat follow,wefocusonparticipantswhoare cantly more conforming to his work environment than the
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BELLEZZA, GINO, AND KEINAN 000
unshaved professor wearing a T-shirt (M p 5.7 vs. FIGURE3
conforming
M p 2.9, t(156) p13.8, p ! .001). As a further
nonconforming
manipulation check,weconducteda2(conformingvs.non- STUDY2RESULTS:THEEFFECTOFNONCONFORMITYIN
conformingindividual)#2(prestigecontextvs.nonprestige PRESTIGECONTEXTS
context) between-subjects ANOVA using ratings of confor-
mity as the dependent variable. The analysis revealedasig-
nificant main effect for nonconformity (F(1, 154) p 165.2,
p!.001),asignificantmaineffectforprestigecontext(F(1,
154)p5.0,p!.05),andasignificantinteraction(F(1,154)
p 6.0, p ! .05). Given the statistical significance of both
treatment variables and their interaction, we proceeded with
ananalysisoftheeffectsizestocomparetherelativeimpact
of each factor (Perdue and Summers 1986). The effect size
ofthenonconformitymanipulation(h2 p.52)was
nonconformity
respectively 16 and 14 times larger than the effect size of
theprestigecontextmanipulation(h2 p.03)andofthe
prestige
interaction (h2 p .04), suggesting that our noncon-
interaction
formity manipulation was successful.
Next, we conducted a similar 2 # 2 between-subjects
ANOVAusingratingsoftheprofessor’sprofessionalstatus
and competence as the dependent variable. The analysis
revealed a significant main effect forprestigecontext(F(1,
155) p 6.1, p ! .05), a nonsignificant main effectfornon-
tested and demonstrated the boundary condition relative to
conformity (F(1, 155) p .70, NS), and a significant inter-
action (F(1, 155) p 13.0, p ! .001), depicted in figure 3. prestigecontexts,intheexperimentsthatfollowweexamine
theredsneakerseffectinsimilarcontextswithsharednorms
Aspredicted,whentheschoolwasdescribedasprestigious,
of formal conduct (e.g., country clubs, business schools).
studentsattributedsignificantlymorestatusandcompetence
tothenonconformingprofessorthantotheconformingone
(M p 5.7 vs. M p 5.0, t(83) p 3.3, p ! Study 3: Nonconformity Depicted as
nonconforming conforming
.01).Incontrast,whennoinformationabouttheschoolwas Unintentional and Perceived Autonomy
provided, there was a marginally significant difference be-
tween conditions in favor of the conforming individual The goal of study 3 is threefold. First, it examines non-
(M p 4.8 vs. M p 5.2, t(72) p 1.8, p p conforming behaviors in the domain of nonadherence to
nonconforming conforming
.07).Theseresultssuggestthatpeopleattributehigherstatus dresscodesfromadifferentanglethanstudies1and2.Tian
and competence to individuals who are nonconforming et al.’s (2001) theoretical accountsuggeststhatconsumers’
ratherthanconforminginprestigiouscontextswithexpected resistance to conformity pressures can have distinctbehav-
normsofformalconduct.We also checkedwhetherpartic- ioral manifestations, such as downgrading ofthe consump-
ipants’ gender would impact status attributions. We con- tion style(so-called“avoidanceofsimilarity”)ortheselec-
ducted the same ANOVA analysis including gender as a tionoforiginalandnovelconsumergoods(“creativechoice
control variable and found no significant effect for this counterconformity”). While studies 1 and 2 manipulated
demographic variable. nonconformity through casual dress styles, study 3 inves-
tigates nonconformity through originaldressstyles.Specif-
Discussion. Study 2 extends the findings of study 1 re- ically, we test how participants grant status within a mem-
garding the relationship between signals of nonconformity bership club to an individual attending a formal black-tie
andperceptionsofstatusandcompetencebyexaminingthis party. We describe the individual as conforming or non-
link in a different domain. We find that students perceive conforming by manipulating the color of the bow tie he is
an unshaven professor who wears a T-shirt to have higher wearing at the party (black vs. red). Second, in this study
professionalstatusandcompetencethanashavenprofessor weexamineanothernecessaryconditionoftheredsneakers
who wears a tie, but only in a prestigious context, with effect. We expect that when a specific nonconforming be-
relatively high standards of conduct. havior is “unintentional” (i.e., “it was not his intention to
Individuals can deviate from the norm and nonconform dress in a way that potentially deviates from the norm”),
in several ways (Tian et al. 2001). While studies 1 and 2 the nonconforming conduct no longer will be associated
operationalizednonconformityasdressingdown,inthenext with enhanced status, competence, and autonomy, as hy-
study we examine nonadherence to dress codes through an pothesized.Finally,instudy3wedelveintothemechanisms
original product choice (i.e., wearing a red bow tie at a underlyingstatusandcompetenceinferencesresultingfrom
formal black-tie party at a country club). We also examine nonconformity.Specifically,weseektodemonstratethatob-
theroleofperceivedautonomyasthekeymediatingmech- servers attribute higher status and competence in response
anism underlying status inferences. Since in this study we to signals of nonconformity because they believe that the
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