The Mongol art of war : Chinggis Khan and the Mongol military system

218 Pages·2016·3.56 MB·English

by  May

First published in Great Britain in 2007 by
Pen & Sword Military
an imprint of
Pen & Sword Books Ltd
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Barnsley
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Copyright © Timothy May 2007
ISBN 1-84415-476-9
ISBN 978-1-84415-476-0
eISBN 9781844683673
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Contents
List of Plates
List of illustrations
Maps
Acknowledgements
Pronunciation and transliteration guide
Prologue
1. The rise and expansion of the Mongol Empire, 1185–1265
2. The recruitment and organization of the Mongol Army
3. Training and equipping the Mongol warrior
4. The care of the army: logistics, supply, and medical care
5. Espionage, tactics, and strategy
6. Leadership
7. Opponents of the Mongols
8. At war with the Mongols
9. Legacy of the Mongols
Glossary
List of abbreviations used in the notes
Notes
Select bibliography
Chapter One
The rise and expansion of the Mongol Empire,
1185–1265
The Mongol Empire founded by Chinggis Khan (also known as Genghis
Khan in the West) became the largest contiguous empire in history,
stretching from the Sea of Japan to the Mediterranean Sea and the
Carpathian Mountains. At its peak, more than a million men were under
arms and enrolled in the armies of the Khan, or the emperor of the Mongol
Empire. The Mongol Khans became determined to conquer the world,
and, indeed, with the resources at their disposal there was little reason
why they should fail. Eventually, however, their empire collapsed,
partially under its own weight. The following is a brief history of the rise
of the Mongol Empire and its subsequent expansion across Asia and into
Europe, until it fragmented into four smaller yet still powerful kingdoms.
The rise of Chinggis Khan
The most difficult stage in the evolution of the Mongol empire was the
unification of Mongolia itself under Chinggis Khan. There was no clear reason
why Temüjin, as Chinggis Khan was known, should become the supreme power
in the Mongolian steppe. Indeed, there were many more significant leaders and
tribes. The Mongols themselves were a broken power, having suffered defeats
by their hereditary enemies – the Tatars in eastern Mongolia, and the Jin
Dynasty, which ruled Northern China – in the 1160s. The ramifications of these
defeats were immense, and resulted in the Mongols declining to the status of a
minor power in the steppe, often requiring the support of more powerful tribes to
withstand the continued aggression of the Tatars. Nonetheless, although the
Mongols were now without a true khan a few clan leaders still maintained the
struggle. One such leader was Yisügei Bahadur (bahadur meaning ‘hero’,
‘brave’). Not only did Yisügei prove to be an ardent enemy of the Tatars, but he
was also the catalyst for many of the changes that would sweep through
Mongolia for the rest of the twelfth century.
Yisügei fathered Temüjin by his wife Hö’elün, who he had acquired through
the nefarious, yet traditional, means of kidnapping. Hö’elün, a member of the
Onggirat tribe, had been accompanying her new husband, Chiledu of the Merkit,
back to his pasturelands, when Yisügei and his brothers attacked. Chiledu
escaped, but Hö’elün was abducted and became Yisügei’s first and senior wife.
She gave birth to Temüjin around 1165, and then to Jochi-Kasar, Kachun, and
Temüge, as well as a daughter, the youngest child, named Temülün. In addition,
Yisügei had married a second wife named Ko’agchin, who gave him another two
sons.1 These two boys, Bekhter and Belgütei, appear to have been slightly older
than Temüjin, despite being the issue of Yisügei’s second wife.
The children knew their father for only a brief time. When Temüjin was 8 or
9 years old Yisügei took him to find a future bride. Along the way they
encountered Dai-Sechen, a leader among the Onggirat, who convinced Yisügei
that his own daughter, Börte, only slightly older than Temüjin, would be a good
wife for the boy. Furthermore, and perhaps the deciding factor, Dai-Sechen
prophesized greatness for the young Mongol lad, saying:
‘This son of yours is a boy,
Who has fire in his eyes,
Who has light in his face.’2
Dai-Sechen also described to Yisügei a dream he had had the previous
night, about a white gerfalcon that clutched the sun and the moon as it
flew to him. The Onggirat chieftain’s interpretation of the dream was that
Temüjin was the gerfalcon, and by clutching the sun and moon it was
obvious that he would rule the world.3
Yisügei accepted this as a good omen and left his son with the Onggirat
before setting out for home. During his return journey he stopped at a camp to
rest, since among the steppe nomads there was, and even today still is, a custom
of hospitality towards wayfarers. If someone comes to your camp seeking food
or shelter, you are obliged to grant it. This was typical behavior and was
reciprocal. Unfortunately for Yisügei, the particular camp he had come to was
that of some Tatars. Despite their animosity, the Tatars were still obligated to
receive their visitor and tend to his needs. Nonetheless, these particular Tatars,
having recognized the Mongol chieftain, poisoned his food and drink, and by the
time Yisügei reached home he was near death. His last request was that Temüjin
should be brought home, although he passed away (in 1175) before Temüjin
arrived.
The death of Temüjin’s father had grave ramifications for the Mongols.
Yisügei had been the leader of the Borjigid, one of the major divisions among
the Mongols, but although Temüjin had returned home none of the other clans,
understandably, would accept the leadership of a 10-year-old boy. Thus most of
the clans that had followed Yisügei now flocked to the Tayichiut, another major
Mongol group, while the rest found leadership elsewhere. As a result, Temüjin’s
family became impoverished.
It was during this period that Temüjin became embroiled in a contest over
seniority with his elder half-brother Bekhter. While Temüjin and his brother
Jochi-Kasar killed Bekhter in an argument over food, the quarrel was ultimately
about power.4 As the eldest son of Yisügei’s senior wife, Hö’elün, Temüjin was
the most likely to become leader of the family when he obtained his majority at
the age of 15, but Bekhter was a few years older. Thus Bekhter would naturally
obtain his majority first, and as such was unlikely to accept inferior rank to his
younger half-brother Temüjin. Bekhter might also assume the leadership by
Levirate marriage, a common tradition among the nomads being that the sons or
brothers of a deceased man could marry his wives (excluding of course, their
own mother). It was consequently feasible that Bekhter might marry Hö’elün,
and thus become Temüjin’s father and effectively his lord. In all likelihood
Temüjin’s murder of his brother had more to do with this possibility than the
theft of little a food.
While Temüjin staved off a threat to his primacy among his family,
Bekhter’s death triggered a reaction among the other Mongols. The murder of
his half-brother violated nomadic custom, and although Temüjin’s family was no
longer a major player in steppe politics it still demanded attention. As a result,
the Tayichiut raided Temüjin’s camp. While Temüjin and his brothers avoided
capture for several days, he was ultimately taken prisoner and brought to the
Tayichiut camp, where he was held for perhaps several years.5
Eventually escaping, Temüjin gradually established himself as leader of a
small but loyal following outside of his family. It was during this period that he
claimed his bride from Dai-Sechen. This was in 1182/3. In addition to marrying
Börte, he used her dowry to develop a client relationship with the powerful
leader of the Kereits, Toghril Ong-Qan. As ruler of the Kereit, Toghril
dominated central Mongolia in the basin of the Selenge, Orkhon and Tula rivers.
Temüjin demonstrated a flair for politics by using his father Yisügei’s ties to
Toghril to gain his patronage, Yisügei having, on more than one occasion,
assisted Toghril in gaining or regaining his throne. Furthermore, the two had
been blood-brothers, or anda, and it was on the basis of this relationship that
Temüjin now called for Toghril’s help.
Less than a year after gaining his bride and the protection of the powerful
khan of the Kereit, the Merkits belatedly avenged the abduction of Hö’elün by
raiding Temüjin’s camp. As Temüjin and the others fled, uncertain who was
attacking them, Börte was inadvertently left behind and carried off by the
Merkits. Temüjin therefore turned to Toghril for assistance. Although, in the
grand scheme of things, Temüjin was a minor figure in Toghril’s hierarchy, the
latter agreed to assist him, probably because of the opportunity it provided for
plunder. Toghril also called upon another Mongol leader, Jamuqa, to join in the
campaign. Jamuqa was not only a client of Toghril, and quite possibly the leader
of his armies, but was also an anda (blood-brother) of Temüjin, and earlier in his
life had been another victim of the depredations of the Merkit.6 The subsequent
attack on the Merkit was tremendously successful, not only regaining Börte but
disrupting and weakening Merkit power for several years.