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The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology PDF

710 Pages·2001·10.376 MB·English
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GALE The ENCYCLOPEDIA of P sychology SECOND EDITION G ALE The ENCYCLOPEDIA of P sychology SECOND EDITION BONNIE STRICKLAND, EXECUTIVE EDITOR Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology Second Edition Bonnie R. Strickland,Executive editor While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the infor- mation presented in this publication,Gale Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for GALE GROUP STAFF listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization,agency,in- stitution,publication,service,or individual does not imply endorse- Kristine Krapp,Coordinating senior editor ment of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the Christine Jeryan,Managing editor publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be cor- Melissa C. McDade,Assistant editor rected in future editions. Deirdre Blanchfield,Assistant editor This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable Mark Springer,Editorial Technical Trainer copyright laws,as well as by misappropriation,trade secret,unfair com- petition,and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work Barbara J. Yarrow,Manager,Multimedia and imaging have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one content or more of the following:unique and original selection,coordination, Robyn V. Young,Senior editor,Imaging acquisitions expression,arrangement,and classification of the information. Robert Duncan,Senior imaging specialist All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. Kenn Zorn,Product design manager Copyright 2001 Marie Claire Krzewinski,Cover design Gale Group Marie Claire Krzewinski and Michelle DiMercurio, 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills,MI 48331-3535 Page design Mike Logusz,Graphic artist All rights reserved,including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Mary Beth Trimper,Manager,Composition and electronic prepress ISBN 0-7876-4786-1 Evi Seoud,Assistant manager,Composition and Printed in the United States of America electronic prepress 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Stacy L. Melson,Buyer Tables by Mark Berger,Standley Publishing,Ferndale, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Michigan The Gale encyclopedia of psychology / Bonnie R. Strickland, First Edition by Eastword Publication Development, executive editor.–2nd ed. Pepper Pike,Ohio p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7876-4786-1 1. Psychology–Encyclopedias. I. Strickland,Bonnie R. BF31.G35 2000 150’.3–dc21 00-34736 EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS EXECUTIVE EDITOR Susan Gall Bonnie Ruth Strickland,Ph.D Lauri R. Harding Professor of Psychology Jim Henry D. George Joseph University of Massachusetts/Amherst Jerome Kagan Kyung Lim Kalasky COORDINATING EDITOR Mary Anne Klasen Judson Knight Kristine M. Krapp Peter LaFreniere Johnna Laird CONTRIBUTORS Lara Lynn Lane Margaret Alic Patricia Martin Doreen Arcus Mary McNulty Howard Baker George A. Milite Bernard Beins Zoran Minderovic Karen L. Bierman Nancy Moore Hallie Bourne Timothy E. Moore James Calland Patricia Skinner Kenneth Chiacchia Gail B. Slap Dianne Daeg de Mott Jane Spear Jill De Villiers Laurence Steinberg Marie Doorey Judith Turner Catherine Dybiec Holm Cindy Washabaugh Lindsay Evans Janet A. Welsh Alan Feldman Rosalie Wieder Paula Ford-Martin Angela Woodward GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION V ABOUT THE ENCYCLOPEDIA The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology,Second Edi- • Bolded cross-references direct the reader to entries tionincludes over 650 entries on people and subjects im- on terms mentioned in the text of other entries. portant to the study of psychology. This number repre- • See alsoreferences at the end of entries point the sents one-third more entries than the first edition. The reader to related entries. book has been designed so the reader can easily find and access the information needed. • Further Reading and Further Information sections follow entries,directing the reader to other sources • Entries are alphabetically arranged. of information on the topic. • Length of entries ranges from brief explanations of a concept in one or two paragraphs to longer,more • A new and improved glossary of over 350 essential detailed entries on more complex topics. Almost terms is included to help the reader understand key 65% of the entries are entirely new or updated concepts. from the first edition. • An updated appendix lists psychological organiza- • A brief definition of the entry term appears be- tions that the reader may contact for further in- tween the entry title and the full text of the entry. quiries. • Over 175 photos,illustrations,and tables accom- • An updated and expanded general subject index pany the text and enhance the reader’s understand- points the reader to concepts and people covered in ing of the subject covered. the encyclopedia. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION VII CONTENTS Editors and Contributors......................v About the Encyclopedia.....................vii Table of Contents.............................ix Introduction ..................................xi Entries........................................1 Glossary ....................................675 Psychological Organizations ...............687 Index ......................................691 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION IX INTRODUCTION Psychology is one of the most fascinating fields of Psychology is one of our youngest sciences. People study. Almost everyone seems interested in understand- first looked at the stars to predict and control their des- ing his or her own behavior,as well as the actions of oth- tiny and the science of astronomy was born. Mathemat- ers. Psychology is,by far,the most popular of the social ics was necessary to count and measure,and eventually and behavioral sciences and one of the most attractive to the physical sciences,such as physics,chemistry,and bi- those who are interested in knowing more about people ology,emerged. The study of human psychology,how- and their behavior. In college and universities,psycholo- ever,developed later. It has only been a bit over a centu- gy has been one of the most popular majors for over ry since scientists and philosophers turned their eyes three decades, and students are more likely to take an from the planets to people and tried to understand human elective course in psychology than one from any other behavior in a systematic,scientific way. In the late l9th field. Not surprisingly, psychology has also become a century,philosophers and physiologists began to exam- popular high school offering. ine the ways people perceive and interact with the world around them. How do individuals use their senses of Initially,psychology courses at the secondary school sight, hearing, and touch to make sense of the world? level tried to meet the needs of rapidly maturing adoles- How do people remember what has happened to them or cents who were interested in the changes they were expe- know how to plan for the future? riencing in themselves and in their relationships with oth- ers—family,friends,the world of adults. We are living in In the late second half of the 1800s, a number of times of dramatic social change. Each of us continually young North American men and a few women traveled faces new challenges about how we will make our place in to Germany to study with Wilhelm Wundt,who had es- the world. As the discipline of psychology matured,ad- tablished a laboratory and the first graduate program of justment courses gave way to substantive content courses study in psychology at the University of Leipzig in Ger- that offered not just psychology’s latest findings about de- many. They returned to teach psychology and train other velopmental and identity issues,but also featured those students in the major universities of this country with the more traditional areas of cognitive,experimental,physio- intent of quantifying individual differences and impor- logical,and social psychology. These courses were joined tant elements of human perception and memory. by newly developed offerings such as neuropsychology About the same time (1896),Lightner Witmer estab- and psycholinguistics. The advances in the scientific side lished a Psychological Clinic at the University of Penn- of psychology were paralleled by the remarkable growth sylvania to help children who were having difficulty in of counseling,clinical,and school psychology. school. To keep up with the rapidly expanding field, the Being a psychologist,he assumed that his new pro- newly revised second edition of the Gale Encyclopedia fession—dedicated to learning and memory—would of Psychologyhas added about a third more entries and help him assist children who were having trouble read- biographies. Coverage includes the key concepts on ing, writing, spelling, and remembering information. which the science is built, as well as major theoretical Unfortunately,Witmer could find no help from the com- advances in psychology. Clinical information is broadly plex,theoretical notions within the experimental labora- covered,noting the various psychological theories and tories,and he turned to schoolteachers and social work- techniques currently in use and the scientific evidence ers for practical advice. that supports then. Biographical profiles of major figures in the field of psychology are included,ranging from the Thus began the long struggle between the scientific earliest historical pioneers to current clinicians. study and practice of psychology,theory and action. Sci- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION XI entists want to know that the data that they gather in their mine who might be good officers (or spies). On the battle- experiments are valid and replicable (that is,others pur- field,clinicians were helping troops who were experienc- suing the same questions with appropriate methods ing “traumatic neurosis,”originally called “shell shock” would find the same results). They sometimes feel that in the First World War and now known as post-traumatic clinicians, for example, use psychotherapy techniques stress disorder. When the soldiers returned home,they led that have not been proven to be useful and may even be therapy groups for wounded military personnel. harmful. Practitioners, on the other hand, faced with At the end of the Second World War,the National Re- pressing and immediate problems of clients who are anx- search Council urged the American Psychological Associ- ious,depressed,or psychotic,need immediate treatments ation (APA) to heal the schism between scientists and to relieve suffering and may use methods that have not clinicians and reorganize with full membership benefits have been fully proven in the laboratories. for all doctoral psychologists. The Veteran’s Hospitals,in The earliest psychologists worked primarily with chil- particular,needed well-trained personnel to provide men- dren,usually those who were delinquent or having trouble tal health services for their patients. A major 1949 confer- in school. They were particularly taken with assessing in- ence held in Boulder,Colorado established standards of telligence and translated a test developed by a Frenchman, education and training for clinical psychologists. Their Alfred Binet,to quantify “mental age.”Unfortunately,they recommendations were that clinical psychologists should moved well beyond the limitations of the test that had been be trained as generalists who were both scientists and clin- designed to identify children who were having trouble in icians. Doctoral students would complete at least a year of school. They began testing soldiers recruited for the First internship and receive the Ph. D. (doctor of philosophy) World War and immigrants who wanted to come to this degree. These standards are still in place today,although country. According to their tests,they found almost half of newer of training are available for students who want to the young,white male recruits and some 80% of Eastern place more emphasis on practice and less on doing re- European immigrants to be “morons.”This led them to re- search. In addition to university graduate programs, a think the uses of intelligence tests,especially because of large number of professional schools have been estab- opinions like that of journalist Walter Lippman,who rec- lished,often offering a Psy. D (doctor of psychology) de- ommended that the “intelligence testers and their tests gree. Currently,some 4,000 students graduate each year should be sunk without warning in the… sea.”But serious with a doctoral degree in psychology and perhaps three harm had been done. Some six million immigrants were times that many receive a master’s degree. The over- denied entrance into this country,and intelligence testing whelming majority of these graduates go into clinical or laid the base for human eugenics laws that allowed individ- applied work,although changing conditions in the health uals who were found “intellectually unfit”to be sterilized. fields,such as the growth of HMOs,have raised concerns about job opportunities for clinical psychologists. Nonetheless,psychology became something of a na- tional mania in the 1920s. With the introduction of psy- A field as broad as psychology,which stretches from choanalysis into this country,people wanted to “adjust” the study of brain cells to that of prison cells,is an active, through self-examination and the probing of the uncon- argumentative,and exciting adventure that offers oppor- scious. The scientific psychologists were dismayed at the tunities in science,practice,and social policy. Most of the excesses of pseudopsychologists,whose ranks included pressing economic and social issues of our generation, mind readers and charlatans. Psychological clinicians such as the environment,health needs,poverty,and vio- were concerned as well and took steps to develop a stan- lence,will only be alleviated if we understand the ways in dard of ethics and ways of identifying appropriately which people create or creatively solve the problems that trained psychologists. we bring upon ourselves. The student who is interested in unraveling the secrets of the human brain to see the mind With the advent of the Second World War,psycholo- at work,who is fascinated about how children grow up gists joined the military effort and were surprised them- and become competent adults,who is dedicated to bring- selves by how much they had to offer. Human factors psy- ing people together to resolve conflict,who is committed chologists designed airplane cockpits and the lighting on to helping people with physical,emotional,or behavioral runways that we still use today. Gestalt psychologists difficulties,or who is challenged by the desire to develop taught American citizens how to identify enemy planes social policy in the public interest is welcomed in psy- should they fly overhead. B.F. Skinner taught pigeons to chology. We hope this encyclopedia will provide useful guide missiles toward enemy targets. Psychologists information that will help students and others understand worked for the Office of Strategic Services (which eventu- this fascinating field and its opportunities. ally became the CIA) to develop propaganda and disinfor- mation. This group also developed assessments to deter- Bonnie R. Strickland,Ph.D. XII GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION Bonnie Ruth Strickland received her Ph.D. in Clini- President of the American Psychological Association,the cal Psychology from The Ohio State University in 1962. Division of Clinical Psychology and the American Asso- She has been on the faculties of Emory University and the ciation for Applied and Preventive Psychology; she was a University of Massachusetts in Amherst as a teacher,re- Founder and on the first Board of Directors of the Ameri- searcher, administrator, clinician, and consultant. A can Psychological Society. An advocate for minority con- Diplomate in Clinical Psychology,she has also been in cerns,she has published more than a hundred scholarly practice for over 35 years. Dr. Strickland has served as works including two Citation Classics in psychology. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION XIII

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