The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology

710 Pages·2001·10.376 MB·English

by  Bonnie B. Strickland

GALE
The
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
P
sychology
SECOND EDITION
G ALE
The
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
P
sychology
SECOND EDITION
BONNIE STRICKLAND, EXECUTIVE EDITOR
Gale
Encyclopedia
of Psychology
Second Edition
Bonnie R. Strickland,Executive editor While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the infor-
mation presented in this publication,Gale Group does not guarantee
the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for
GALE GROUP STAFF listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization,agency,in-
stitution,publication,service,or individual does not imply endorse-
Kristine Krapp,Coordinating senior editor ment of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the
Christine Jeryan,Managing editor publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be cor-
Melissa C. McDade,Assistant editor rected in future editions.
Deirdre Blanchfield,Assistant editor
This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable
Mark Springer,Editorial Technical Trainer copyright laws,as well as by misappropriation,trade secret,unfair com-
petition,and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work
Barbara J. Yarrow,Manager,Multimedia and imaging have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one
content or more of the following:unique and original selection,coordination,
Robyn V. Young,Senior editor,Imaging acquisitions expression,arrangement,and classification of the information.
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electronic prepress ISBN 0-7876-4786-1
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Printed in the United States of America
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Tables by Mark Berger,Standley Publishing,Ferndale, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Michigan
The Gale encyclopedia of psychology / Bonnie R. Strickland,
First Edition by Eastword Publication Development, executive editor.–2nd ed.
Pepper Pike,Ohio p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7876-4786-1
1. Psychology–Encyclopedias. I. Strickland,Bonnie R.
BF31.G35 2000
150’.3–dc21 00-34736
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
EXECUTIVE EDITOR Susan Gall
Bonnie Ruth Strickland,Ph.D Lauri R. Harding
Professor of Psychology Jim Henry
D. George Joseph
University of Massachusetts/Amherst
Jerome Kagan
Kyung Lim Kalasky
COORDINATING EDITOR Mary Anne Klasen
Judson Knight
Kristine M. Krapp
Peter LaFreniere
Johnna Laird
CONTRIBUTORS
Lara Lynn Lane
Margaret Alic Patricia Martin
Doreen Arcus Mary McNulty
Howard Baker George A. Milite
Bernard Beins Zoran Minderovic
Karen L. Bierman Nancy Moore
Hallie Bourne Timothy E. Moore
James Calland Patricia Skinner
Kenneth Chiacchia Gail B. Slap
Dianne Daeg de Mott Jane Spear
Jill De Villiers Laurence Steinberg
Marie Doorey Judith Turner
Catherine Dybiec Holm Cindy Washabaugh
Lindsay Evans Janet A. Welsh
Alan Feldman Rosalie Wieder
Paula Ford-Martin Angela Woodward
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION V
ABOUT THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology,Second Edi- • Bolded cross-references direct the reader to entries
tionincludes over 650 entries on people and subjects im- on terms mentioned in the text of other entries.
portant to the study of psychology. This number repre-
• See alsoreferences at the end of entries point the
sents one-third more entries than the first edition. The
reader to related entries.
book has been designed so the reader can easily find and
access the information needed. • Further Reading and Further Information sections
follow entries,directing the reader to other sources
• Entries are alphabetically arranged.
of information on the topic.
• Length of entries ranges from brief explanations of
a concept in one or two paragraphs to longer,more • A new and improved glossary of over 350 essential
detailed entries on more complex topics. Almost terms is included to help the reader understand key
65% of the entries are entirely new or updated concepts.
from the first edition.
• An updated appendix lists psychological organiza-
• A brief definition of the entry term appears be- tions that the reader may contact for further in-
tween the entry title and the full text of the entry. quiries.
• Over 175 photos,illustrations,and tables accom- • An updated and expanded general subject index
pany the text and enhance the reader’s understand- points the reader to concepts and people covered in
ing of the subject covered. the encyclopedia.
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION VII
CONTENTS
Editors and Contributors......................v
About the Encyclopedia.....................vii
Table of Contents.............................ix
Introduction ..................................xi
Entries........................................1
Glossary ....................................675
Psychological Organizations ...............687
Index ......................................691
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION IX
INTRODUCTION
Psychology is one of the most fascinating fields of Psychology is one of our youngest sciences. People
study. Almost everyone seems interested in understand- first looked at the stars to predict and control their des-
ing his or her own behavior,as well as the actions of oth- tiny and the science of astronomy was born. Mathemat-
ers. Psychology is,by far,the most popular of the social ics was necessary to count and measure,and eventually
and behavioral sciences and one of the most attractive to the physical sciences,such as physics,chemistry,and bi-
those who are interested in knowing more about people ology,emerged. The study of human psychology,how-
and their behavior. In college and universities,psycholo- ever,developed later. It has only been a bit over a centu-
gy has been one of the most popular majors for over ry since scientists and philosophers turned their eyes
three decades, and students are more likely to take an from the planets to people and tried to understand human
elective course in psychology than one from any other behavior in a systematic,scientific way. In the late l9th
field. Not surprisingly, psychology has also become a century,philosophers and physiologists began to exam-
popular high school offering. ine the ways people perceive and interact with the world
around them. How do individuals use their senses of
Initially,psychology courses at the secondary school
sight, hearing, and touch to make sense of the world?
level tried to meet the needs of rapidly maturing adoles-
How do people remember what has happened to them or
cents who were interested in the changes they were expe-
know how to plan for the future?
riencing in themselves and in their relationships with oth-
ers—family,friends,the world of adults. We are living in In the late second half of the 1800s, a number of
times of dramatic social change. Each of us continually young North American men and a few women traveled
faces new challenges about how we will make our place in to Germany to study with Wilhelm Wundt,who had es-
the world. As the discipline of psychology matured,ad- tablished a laboratory and the first graduate program of
justment courses gave way to substantive content courses study in psychology at the University of Leipzig in Ger-
that offered not just psychology’s latest findings about de- many. They returned to teach psychology and train other
velopmental and identity issues,but also featured those students in the major universities of this country with the
more traditional areas of cognitive,experimental,physio- intent of quantifying individual differences and impor-
logical,and social psychology. These courses were joined tant elements of human perception and memory.
by newly developed offerings such as neuropsychology
About the same time (1896),Lightner Witmer estab-
and psycholinguistics. The advances in the scientific side
lished a Psychological Clinic at the University of Penn-
of psychology were paralleled by the remarkable growth
sylvania to help children who were having difficulty in
of counseling,clinical,and school psychology.
school.
To keep up with the rapidly expanding field, the
Being a psychologist,he assumed that his new pro-
newly revised second edition of the Gale Encyclopedia
fession—dedicated to learning and memory—would
of Psychologyhas added about a third more entries and
help him assist children who were having trouble read-
biographies. Coverage includes the key concepts on
ing, writing, spelling, and remembering information.
which the science is built, as well as major theoretical
Unfortunately,Witmer could find no help from the com-
advances in psychology. Clinical information is broadly
plex,theoretical notions within the experimental labora-
covered,noting the various psychological theories and
tories,and he turned to schoolteachers and social work-
techniques currently in use and the scientific evidence
ers for practical advice.
that supports then. Biographical profiles of major figures
in the field of psychology are included,ranging from the Thus began the long struggle between the scientific
earliest historical pioneers to current clinicians. study and practice of psychology,theory and action. Sci-
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION XI
entists want to know that the data that they gather in their mine who might be good officers (or spies). On the battle-
experiments are valid and replicable (that is,others pur- field,clinicians were helping troops who were experienc-
suing the same questions with appropriate methods ing “traumatic neurosis,”originally called “shell shock”
would find the same results). They sometimes feel that in the First World War and now known as post-traumatic
clinicians, for example, use psychotherapy techniques stress disorder. When the soldiers returned home,they led
that have not been proven to be useful and may even be therapy groups for wounded military personnel.
harmful. Practitioners, on the other hand, faced with
At the end of the Second World War,the National Re-
pressing and immediate problems of clients who are anx-
search Council urged the American Psychological Associ-
ious,depressed,or psychotic,need immediate treatments
ation (APA) to heal the schism between scientists and
to relieve suffering and may use methods that have not
clinicians and reorganize with full membership benefits
have been fully proven in the laboratories.
for all doctoral psychologists. The Veteran’s Hospitals,in
The earliest psychologists worked primarily with chil- particular,needed well-trained personnel to provide men-
dren,usually those who were delinquent or having trouble tal health services for their patients. A major 1949 confer-
in school. They were particularly taken with assessing in- ence held in Boulder,Colorado established standards of
telligence and translated a test developed by a Frenchman, education and training for clinical psychologists. Their
Alfred Binet,to quantify “mental age.”Unfortunately,they recommendations were that clinical psychologists should
moved well beyond the limitations of the test that had been be trained as generalists who were both scientists and clin-
designed to identify children who were having trouble in icians. Doctoral students would complete at least a year of
school. They began testing soldiers recruited for the First internship and receive the Ph. D. (doctor of philosophy)
World War and immigrants who wanted to come to this degree. These standards are still in place today,although
country. According to their tests,they found almost half of newer of training are available for students who want to
the young,white male recruits and some 80% of Eastern place more emphasis on practice and less on doing re-
European immigrants to be “morons.”This led them to re- search. In addition to university graduate programs, a
think the uses of intelligence tests,especially because of large number of professional schools have been estab-
opinions like that of journalist Walter Lippman,who rec- lished,often offering a Psy. D (doctor of psychology) de-
ommended that the “intelligence testers and their tests gree. Currently,some 4,000 students graduate each year
should be sunk without warning in the… sea.”But serious with a doctoral degree in psychology and perhaps three
harm had been done. Some six million immigrants were times that many receive a master’s degree. The over-
denied entrance into this country,and intelligence testing whelming majority of these graduates go into clinical or
laid the base for human eugenics laws that allowed individ- applied work,although changing conditions in the health
uals who were found “intellectually unfit”to be sterilized. fields,such as the growth of HMOs,have raised concerns
about job opportunities for clinical psychologists.
Nonetheless,psychology became something of a na-
tional mania in the 1920s. With the introduction of psy- A field as broad as psychology,which stretches from
choanalysis into this country,people wanted to “adjust” the study of brain cells to that of prison cells,is an active,
through self-examination and the probing of the uncon- argumentative,and exciting adventure that offers oppor-
scious. The scientific psychologists were dismayed at the tunities in science,practice,and social policy. Most of the
excesses of pseudopsychologists,whose ranks included pressing economic and social issues of our generation,
mind readers and charlatans. Psychological clinicians such as the environment,health needs,poverty,and vio-
were concerned as well and took steps to develop a stan- lence,will only be alleviated if we understand the ways in
dard of ethics and ways of identifying appropriately which people create or creatively solve the problems that
trained psychologists. we bring upon ourselves. The student who is interested in
unraveling the secrets of the human brain to see the mind
With the advent of the Second World War,psycholo-
at work,who is fascinated about how children grow up
gists joined the military effort and were surprised them-
and become competent adults,who is dedicated to bring-
selves by how much they had to offer. Human factors psy-
ing people together to resolve conflict,who is committed
chologists designed airplane cockpits and the lighting on
to helping people with physical,emotional,or behavioral
runways that we still use today. Gestalt psychologists
difficulties,or who is challenged by the desire to develop
taught American citizens how to identify enemy planes
social policy in the public interest is welcomed in psy-
should they fly overhead. B.F. Skinner taught pigeons to
chology. We hope this encyclopedia will provide useful
guide missiles toward enemy targets. Psychologists
information that will help students and others understand
worked for the Office of Strategic Services (which eventu-
this fascinating field and its opportunities.
ally became the CIA) to develop propaganda and disinfor-
mation. This group also developed assessments to deter- Bonnie R. Strickland,Ph.D.
XII GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION
Bonnie Ruth Strickland received her Ph.D. in Clini- President of the American Psychological Association,the
cal Psychology from The Ohio State University in 1962. Division of Clinical Psychology and the American Asso-
She has been on the faculties of Emory University and the ciation for Applied and Preventive Psychology; she was a
University of Massachusetts in Amherst as a teacher,re- Founder and on the first Board of Directors of the Ameri-
searcher, administrator, clinician, and consultant. A can Psychological Society. An advocate for minority con-
Diplomate in Clinical Psychology,she has also been in cerns,she has published more than a hundred scholarly
practice for over 35 years. Dr. Strickland has served as works including two Citation Classics in psychology.
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION XIII