The Archaeology of Weapons: Arms and Armour from Prehistory to the Age of Chivalry

188 Pages·1999·6.74 MB·English

by  R. Ewart Oakeshott

THE
ARCHAEOLOGY
OF WEAPONS
Ann • • nJ A ........... r.. ..... ""'hi.tory
..ro."'ooiry
10 Klh.." A.·.C. .e.
O'~

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
"THE DWARF," says Coleridge, "sees farther than the giant, when
he has the giant's shoulder to mount on." Any book of this kind
must be based upon the work of previous scholars, and I owe
much to many giants, whose names will be found in the biblio
graphy. For the mediaeval section, one is outstanding: Henry
Hewitt, whose Antient Armour, published in 1860, has perhaps more
of real value to offer the student of mediaeval arms than any
other· book. This exhaustive study is based upon contemporary
documents, and contains none of the theories which have so be
devilled later research. In my study of the mediaeval sword I have
followed his example, for my sources too have been original. As
anyone who is interested in mediaeval life must, lowe a great deal
to the coundess painters and sculptors who have left so rich, detailed
and accurate an account of the costume and arms of their contem
poraries. My work is based upon theirs; here and there I have illus
trated my text with copies of pieces of it, and though these lack the
character of the originals, they are accurate copies. I have taken
great care not to "improve" on the original, the better to show
detail. Everything is as it was put on to the vellum or carved in the
stone.
Having expressed my gratitude to these giants of the past, I fmd I
have scarcely room to name all the living people to whom lowe so
much. Sir James Mann, K.C.V.O., F.B.A., Hon. Vice-President
Soc. Antiquaries, Master of the Armouries of the Tower of
London, whose encouragement and interest have always sustained
me; Mr. R. L. S. Bruce Mitford, B.A., F.S.A., of the British
Museum, and Mr. Martin Holmes, F.S.A., of the London Museum,
who have firmly steered me into the correct paths of research;
my friends Dr. Hilda Ellis Davidson, M.A., F.S.A., to whom lowe
almost everything I know about the Migration and Viking periods,
Mr. Claude Blair, F.S.A., and Mr. J. F. Hayward, of the Victoria
and Albert Museum, whose scholarship and immense knowledge
of armour have been so generously at my disposal, and Mr. John
Wallace, whose enthusiastic interest and wise criticism have often
made the crooked ways straight and the rough places plain. Both
Mr. Blair and Mr. Wallace read my book in typescript, an irk
CONTENTS
some chore which has added greatly to its value; and my friends
at the Armouries in the Tower of London.
Introduction 13
I must also thank those who have allowed me to illustrate
objects from their collections, and in many cases have supplied Part One
photographs: Mr. R. T. Gwynn, Mr. C. O. v. Kienbusch, Mr. E.
THE PREHISTORIC PERIOD
A. Christensen, Mr. John Wallace, Mr. M. Dineley, Mr. Harold
Petersen, Mr. David Drey, and Mrs. G. E. P. How.
I "THE PITILESS BRONZE" 21
Five short passages from Beowulf are in the translation by Charles
W. Kennedy, copyright I940 by Oxford University Press, Inc., II IRON COMES TO EUROPE: THE HALLST ATT
New York, and are reprinted by permission of the publishers. I am PEOPLE 37
also indebted to Constable and Co. Ltd. for permission to include
III THE GAULS 51
four stanzas from MSS. of Salzburg, Canterbury and Limoges, trans
lated by Helen Waddell in her Mediaeval Latin Lyrics.
I cannot cut this list short without expressing my thanks to two Part Two
secretaries, Mrs. Barbara Escott and Mrs. Anne Motion, who each
enthusiastically typed thousands of words before Matrimony THE HEROIC AGE
snatched them away from The Archaeology of Weapons. My most
IV THE GREAT MIGRATIONS 69
sincere thanks go also to Mrs. Alma Molseed, who typed the last
part in her spare time and had the kindness to say when it was all V ROME IN DECLINE: THE GOTHIC CAVALRY 83
over that she had not been bored by it, and to my friend Mr. Patrick
J. Jones for his patient skill in taking endless photographs of things VI THE BOG-DEPOSITS OF DENMARK 89
in my own collection; and I cannot forget the helpfulness of my VII THE ARMS OF THE MIGRATION PERIOD 107
publishers during the two years the book has been in preparation.
And, of course, my wife. She has had to put up with a houseful of
weapons for nearly twenty years, as well as a husband who has Part Three
frequently been a domestic menace by occasional absences of person
THE VIKINGS
in search of material, and permanent absence of mind by reason of
brooding upon it. Her patience and encouragement and tolerant
VIII SWORDS IN THE VIKING PERIOD 131
acceptance of these things has made everything possible which
without them would have come to nothing. IX THE VIKINGS AT WAR 150
R. EWART OAKESHOTT X FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO THE NORMANS 164
Part Four
THE AGE OF CHIVALRY
, , , , LIST OF PLATES
XI THE GAY SCIENCE OF CHIVALRY 181
The sword of Sancho IV, King of Castile, 1284-95. From his tomb in the
XII SWORD TYPES AND BLADE INSCRIPTIONS, Capilla Mayor in Toledo Cathedral frontispiece
1100-1325 200
(Between pages 184 and 185)
XIII SWORD HILTS AND FITTINGS 224 1 Three Bro~Age swords from Denmark (National Museum,
Copenhagen). Warriors from a Krater of Attic red-figure ware, 5th
XIV THE SWORD IN WEAR 239
century B.C. (British Museum)
XV "THE COMPLETE ARMING OF A MAN", 2 Shiddfrom the River Thames at Battersea, c. A.D. SO (British Museum).
1100-1325 253 3 Iron Age sword and scabbard, c. 300 B.C.; sword with hilt and scabbard
mounts ofs ilver; sword with hilt and scabbard mounts of bronze, both
XVI ARMOUR AND THE LONGBOW IN THE FOUR fourth to fifth centuries A.D. (National Museum, Copenhagen).
TEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 4 Hdmet from the ship grave at Sutton Hoo (British Museum).
5 Reconstructed shield from the ship grave at Sutton Hoo (British
XVII SWORDS AND DAGGERS IN THE FOURTEENTH
Museum).
AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 301
6 Viking sword from the River Thames (British Museum); sword of
Appendix : Four Date-Charts late Viking type (coIl. author); sword c. II 30-70 (in a private collection);
341
sword from Fornham, site of a battle in 1171.
Bibliography 351 7 Sword found in Denmark, c. 1150-1200 (National Museum, Copen
hagen); sword from the River Witham near Lincoln (British
Index
533 Museum); war sword from the River Thames, c. 1300 (Guildhall
Museum); sword with hilt of iron overlaid with silver, c. 1300 (coll.
author, ex coll. J. WaJlace, Esq.).
8 Hilt of "The Sword of St. Maurice", Imperial Treasury, Vienna;
detail ofp late 6c; hilt of sword c. 1300, with original grip (coli. author).
9 War sword, c. 1300 (coli. author); copy of "The Sword of St. Maur
ice" from the Royal Armoury at Turin (coil. author, ex coll. Sir G. F.
Laking); sword from the tomb of Fernando de la Cerda, in the
convent of Las Huelgas, Burgos.
10 Sword (unsheathed) of Sancho IV of Castile, showing part of the
belt, and spurs of Sancho IV of Castile (Toledo Cathedra~.
II .. The Isradites repulsed from Hai", from the Maciejowski Bible
(Pierpont Morgan Library, New York). Seal of the Guild of St. George,
Ferrara (c. 1290) (British Museum), impression of the seal of Roger
Fitzwalter (1235).
material is scanty (and so exceedingly dead) the art in which its In any attempt to write historically there must be a starting point.
common usage is enshrined, whether poem or picture, is plentiful In dealing with the development of arms and the art of war, it seems
and most vigorously alive. to be customary to begin at the period when the break-up of the
Until quite recently much of the vital literary material-the Old Roman Empire was almost completed. I propose to go to the other
Testament, the works of Homer and the "folk-tales" of the Celts extreme and start at a point of time long before Rome itself began.
and the northern races-was regarded as legendary stuff with little At some time about 1900 B.C. certain events completely changed the
historical foundation or value, while the" Rigveda", a great corpus warlike outlook of all the peoples of the ancient East and destroyed
of epic poems, religious texts, stories and popular songs produced those who (like the peaceable people of the Indus civilization of
by the Aryans during the second millennium B.C., the foundation Mohenjo Daro) had none. With these events this study will begin,
upon which all the thought of Buddhism and Hinduism is based, though its main concern is with the Middle Ages.
was little known and equally dismissed as romantic and mystical,
the stuff of dreams. From somewhere in Western Asia people of a fighting race began
Now all is changed. The events recorded in the Bible are known to move southward and eastward about 1900 B.C. In the following
to be based solidly upon facts, often narrated with great accuracy; two centuries the southbound arm of this great prehistoric pincer
Homer's heroes and the stage on which they played their tremendous movement founded the nations of Hatti (known to us as the
parts are legendary no longer ; the stories of Ossian and Grania, Finn Hittites) and Mittanni, and imposed upon the indigenous people of
and the Fianna bring much dead archaeological material in the the Aegean an aristocracy which Homer called the "brown-haired
museums of Ireland to life; while the Eddas of the north and the Achaeans", and which we refer to as the Myceneans, while part of
epic of" Beowulf" are no more regarded as mythical. The Norse it pressed on to overthrow the weak and divided government of
Sagas, which have always been accepted as partly true because of the 14th Dynasty of Egypt, occupying that land for 200 years. The
their curt, hard-boiled realism, are explained and fIxed fIrmly into eastbound arm moved upon North-West India, crushing the mili
their historical setting by much fascinating material got out of the tarily helpless but otherwise magnilicent and powerful people of the
ground. And the Rigveda, once only dimly understood as historical Indus.
narrative, is explained by, and in its tum throws light upon, the Modem ethnography has dubbed this race "Indo-European", and
discovery of the great, ancient civilization of the Indus valley, over they are in every sense the founders of the modem world. From
thrown in about 1900 B.C. by the Aryans, an Indo-European people them the Greeks and Romans are sprung, and most of the races of
whose "Bible" it was. India as well as the Celts and the Teutonic peoples of the North;
The object of this book is to put before the reader a sketch of part they are the ancestors of India and of every Western civilization.
of a colossal subject, to follow this thread of man's invincible The reason for their success was their power in war, power based on
penchant for fighting, to trace the development of the instruments a concept of fighting which in the second millennium B.C. was
he devised to do it with, and to hear what he has to say about hqw entirely new.
he did it. And how he loved it. "Of arms, and of the man I sing," This was the use of horses, not as cavalry in the accepted sense but
says Virgil, and he puts arms &st. From the very beginning arms drawing light chariots each carrying one or two armed men, a
have been sacred, invested with a sort of divine potency; a vestige highly mobile armoured fIghting vehicle. When these chariots were
of this could still be found among Occidental people less than a deployed in squadrons, acting together as disciplined corps, then the
century ago in the West of America, for even such an unromantic ancient formations ofp edestrian spearmen were doomed. The power
seeming piece of black machinery as the "six-gun" retained a little ofE gypt, still mighty in spite ofi neffectual government, went down
of the ancient glamour. before the chariots of the Hyksos, the hated Sand-Ramblers or
14 15
Shepherds, who ruled them until the Princes of Thebes took a leaf
3,000 years ago, yet it would not have been out ofp lace in thirtecnth
out of their oppressors' book and tumed their own weapon against
century France. And this:
them, driving them out of Egypt and far up into Canaan with
With Bow let us win Kine, with Bow in battle, with
armies of Egyptian charioteers in about IS80 B.C.
Bow be victory in our hot encoWlters,
The records of Egypt tell us much of the Indo-Europeans of the
The Bow brings grief and sorrow to the foeman; armed
Middle East, but the best account they give of themselves in their
With Bow may we subdue all regions.
primitive state before their settling-down, and the liveliest, is left to Close to his ear, as fain to speak, she presses, holding
us by the Aryans, the Indian branch of the family, in the Rigveda. Her well-loved friend in her embraces;
In many of the epic chants and narrative poems in this great literary Strained on the bow, she whispers like a woman-this
omnibus we get convincing portraits of their war leaders and the Bow-string that preserves us in the Combat.
bands who followed them; we can trace the same characteristics as Here the loved weapon is the bow, with the bow-string sounding in
in the much later tales of old Ireland, which were told in very the warrior's ear like a woman's endearments, but the sentiment is
similar language.
the same as in the romances of chivalry.
About a quarter of the prayers are addressed to Indra, the greatest Then, 800 years later, came the tremendous stories of Homer
of the Gods: (whoever he may have been, he lived and wrote about 8so B.C.).
Strong-armed, colossal, tawny-bearded, and pot-bellied from drinking, The material he used had existed for many hundreds of years,
he wields the thWlderbolt in his more god-like moments, but fights passed on orally. In the most vivid and lively language he gives a
like a hero with bow and arrows from his chariot. He is a cattle clear picture of men's minds as well as their actions. These tales were
raider, and above all he is the destroyer of the strongholds of the
accepted as a true record of events in Homer's own time and in
enemy, and victorious leader of the Aryans in their conquest of the
classical Greece as well as during the whole of the Roman period and
hated ancient empire of the Punjab. With him fight the yOWlg warrior
throughout the Middle Ages; it was the scepticism of eighteenth
band, the Maruts, who seem to be commanded by Rudra, rival to
and nineteenth-century scholarship which damned them as being
Indra and yet in some ways his counterpart, "Unassailable, rapid,
mere fairy-tales. Then, during the last years of the nineteenth
YOWlg, Wlaging, rul~r of the world ..."
century, the discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann and Sir Arthur
The atmosphere is that of the Irish tales that reflect the conditions
Evans transmuted what was thought to be the base metal of un
of the Celtic Iron Age of the first century B.C. in Ulster and North founded legend into the pure gold of ascertained fact. They un
Britain; Indra is often reminiscent of the grotesque Dagda with his covered Troy itself and Golden Mycenae, and the palaces of Minos
insatiable appetite, Rudra and the Maruts make one think of Finn
in Crete. Schliemann even believed he had found the body of
and the Fianna, the young band of heroes, and the cattle-raiding is Agamemnon, King of Men, in one of the shaft graves at Mycenae,
similar.
but the personages he dug up had lived some 300 years earlier than
The warrior's look is like a thWlderous rain-cloud, the Homeric hero.
When armed with mail he seeks the lap of battle. Wonderful as these material discoveries were, perhaps their
Be thou victorious with Wlwounded body; so let greatest value was the proof that the story of Troy was no legend,
The thickness of thy mail protect thee ...
but an historical event. This makes sense of the vivid realism of
Whoso would kill us, whether he be a strange foe or one of us,
Homer's characters, his attention to small details of behaviour-how
Mayall the Gods discomfit him; my nearest, closest
clearly we see the sleeping Diomedes:
Mail is prayer.
They went next to Diomedes son of Tydeus, and fOWld him lying in
That is part of an epic chant composed in the plains of the Punjab
the open outside his hut, with his armour. His men were sleeping round
16
17
The Batavi ... are not insulted by tribute or ground down by the tax
him with their shields for pillows. Their spears were stuck on end with
the sharpened butts in the ground, and the bronze points flashed in the gatherer. Free from imposts and special levies, and reserved for battle,
distance like lightning from Father Zeus. The Prince was asleep, with they are like weapons and armour, "only to be used in war".
the hide of a farmyard ox behind him, and a glossy rug drawn under
Which very neatly sums up the Roman's view of weapons. How
his head. Nestor the Gerenian charioteer went up to him, woke him
different are the Germans he writes of!
with a touch ofhis foot, and flung a taunt at him to rouse him further.
"Wake up. Tydeides," he said, "why should you sleep in comfort all No business, public or private, [he says] is transacted except in arms.
night long? Has it escaped your notice that the Trojans are sitting in But it is the rule that no one shall take up his arms until the State has
the plain above us, barely a stone's throw from the ships?" attested that he is likely to make good. When that time comes, one of
Diomedes, who had woken and leapt up in a trice, replied with some the chiefs, or the father or a kinsman equips the young warrior with a
feeling. "You are a hard old man. sir, and you never take a moment's spear and shield in the public council.
rest. Are there not younger men in the army to go the rounds and
and again. speaking of council meetings:
wake up all the kings? There is no holding you down, my venerable
lord." ... if they approve, they clash their spears. No form of approval can
carry more honour than praise expressed by arms.
Here indeed is flesh to cover the archaeological bones.
Here indeed we can see the germs of the mediaeval idea of the
So we come to a point where we can compare actual armour and
making of a knight, as well as the great importance of arms to all
arms found in the earth with the things a poet says about them;
men, in peace not war; and then we read:
though in Homer's case this is surprisingly little, it is probably
On the field of battle it is a disgrace to the chief to be surpassed in
because the Mediterranean peoples have never had that extraordin
valour by his companions (companions here being used in the sense of
ary romantic veneration for their arms so characteristic of Teuton,
personal following) or to the companions not to come up in valour to
Celt and Indian-and on the other side of the earth, the Japanese.
their chief. As for leaving the battle alive after your chief has fallen,
The Minoans, Egyptians and Sumerians, like the Chinese, disliked
that means lifelong infamy and shame. To defend and protect him, to
war and alternately derided and reviled the soldier. The Myceneans
put down one's own acts of heroism to his credit, that is what they
and classical Greeks were Indo-Europeans, and tremendous warriors, really mean by allegiance. The chiefs fight for victory, the companions
like the Romans after them, but they considered that arms were for for their chie£ Many noble youths, if the land of their birth is stag
use in war only and tended to take an entirely unromantic and nating in a protracted peace, deliberately seek out other tribes where
matter-of-fact view of them. The ancient Greeks certainly considered some war is afoot. The Germans have no taste for peace; renown is
their arms a worthy vehicle for applied art-the only time Homer easier won among perils, and you cannot maintain a large body of
really lets himself go over armour is when he describes the shield companions except by violence and war. The companions are prodigal
in their demands on the generosity of their chiefs; it is always" give me
which Hephaestos made for Achilles, though even tllen he only
that warhorse" or "give me that bloody and victorious spear". As for
describes the scenes with which the god embellished it.
meals with their plentiful, if homely, fare, they count simply as pay.
The Roman attitude to arms was perhaps even more matter-of
Such open-handedness must have war and plunder to feed it. You will
fact-actually very modem; the civilian fears and shuns them, the
find it harder to persuade a German to plough the land and await its
soldier has them issued to him, cares for them and keeps them clean
annual produce with patience than to challenge a foe and earn the
and in working order because he will get into trouble ifhe does not,
prize of wounds. He thinks it spiritless and slack to gain by sweat what
and has no love for them at all. Tacitus, writing of a particularly
he can buy with blood.
warlike German tribe allied to Rome which was given preferential
treatment because of its value as a weapon, says: A Roman historian writing in the time of Trajan ? It reads more like
18 19
a twelfth-century description of European knighthood. Which, in a
sense, it is; for here is the basic stuff of chivalry, though lacking the
nobler virtues of courtesy, humility, gallantry and, of course,
religion which we may be justified in believing were latent in the
Celtic peoples of Gaul and Britain. It was the fusion of these virtues
with the harsher Teutonic ones which eventually produced the
whole flowering of the chivalric ideal. Part
1
THE PREHISTORIC PERIOD
Chapter One
"THE PITILESS BRONZE"
WHEN IN THE beginning of the second millennium B.C. the
Indo-European people moved into the ancient world, they
brought a new concept of war. This was based on the use
of swift horse-drawn chariots each carrying a warrior armed with
a bow and driven by a charioteer, a fact of great archaeological
importance. Not that ~hey invented the chariot-the Sumerians
must have the credit for that, for painted on some Sumerian scarlet
ware vessels of Early Dynastic I date (c. 3500 B.C.) we fmd pictures
of light two-wheeled cars with high fronts carrying one or two
people and drawn by asses or oxen, and there are others in some
slightly later Early Dynastic reliefs from Ur and Kafajah, and on the
famous "Standard" of Ur from the Royal Tombs (in the British
Museum) similar ass-drawn chariots are shown in great detail, with
solid wheels made of two half-discs dowelled together against the
hub. Slow and clumsy these probably were, but even so must have
been a terror to the foes of Sumer.
Early in the second millennium, chariots were in use in Asia
Minor, but with very important modifications. They had light,
spoked wheels and were drawn by a pair of horses. Such chariots
20 21
V'"
· ~\ made their appearance in the Aegean countries, in the case of the Celtic West up to the time of the campaigns of
~(~-,=-~,::... significantly associated with Indo-European Agricola in Britain. There is plenty of literary evidence for the
'0/V.A, I; ~ sp eak ers, soon acl.t er ths it·lm e, m. rna inla n d construction of the Celtic chariots, amply supported by archaeo
)
~ . Greece before 1500 B.C. and in Crete about logical finds of many examples in the tombs of chieftains.
~
~(~ 1450 B.C. A century or so later there is some So for more than 1,000 years the aristocratic charioteer was the
(")1. evidence to suggest that young Achaean noble- arbiter of battle all over the world. Then, during the fourth century
Fig. 1. Chariot from a men were sent to the Hittite capital to be trained B.C., army formations similar to the ancient style of Egypt appeared
Mycenean tombstone in chariotry.
in an infinitely more formidable guise-the legions of Rome. It was
The chariot was unknown to the ancient not long before the pendulum had swung and the legions swept
Egyptians of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but Egypt was everything before them, and for the next 600 years the Roman
overrun and occupied by the "Hyksos" Asiatics for a couple infantry was almost the only military force to be reckoned with
of hundred years or so, between about 1750 and 1580 B.C. These in the civilized world. Even so, behind her northern and eastern
invaders were Indo-Europeans, using chariots. Soon after the frontiers were many nations of unsubdued barbarians. Ammianus
vigorous rulers of Thebes had thrown the Hyksos out of the
Marcellinus, writing in about A.D. 400, says:
Delta in about 1580 B.C. we f1l1d the Egyptian armies well equipped
At this time, just as though the trumpets were SOW1d.ing a challenge
with chariots themselves, for the first Pharaoh to press far up
throughout the Roman world, fierce nations were stirred up and began
into Palestine, Amenhotep I (c. 1550 B.C.), used well-trained
to burst forth from their territories.
squadrons of chariots as the spearhead of his victorious host. After
this, for another 150 years, the arms of Egypt were carried by These nations were the force which eventually swung the pendulum
Pharaoh after Pharaoh northwards into Syria, until by 1400 B.C. all back; they flooded into the Empire, not with chariots as of old, but
the lands as far as the Euphrates acknowledged Egypt's sovereignty.
as heavy cavalry. The weapon of impact had come into its own
Then the inevitable decline set in and Egypt had to contend witll
again, and would be the dominant force in the world until the
the great Indo-European power of the Hittites, who by about 1270 English cloth-yard arrow began to weaken it during the fourteenth
B.C. had become a mighty nation. In the great clashes of these two century; it fmally gave way when the perfection of gunpowder in
powers in the thirteenth century B.C. the issues of battle were the fifteenth century brought in its turn another concept of war. .
decided by charging chariots, just as in the thirteenth century A.D. The foregoing paragraphs contain a number of generalizations;
they were decided by charges of mounted knights.
my apology for them is that I must at least mention the tremendous
Everyone is familiar with the Egyptian chariot, which appears so
events in which the roots of the Middle Ages are planted. I have
prominently and so often in the reliefs on the walls of temples and
another reason, too, for going back as far as this. From the Neolithic
tombs; the Cretan and M ycenean chariots are less well known,
Age to the present, there have been only two periods when nearly
though there are plenty of representations of them in Minoan
all the personal armaments of war, provided they were of good
Mycenean art (fig. I). A few actual chariots still survive in Egypt, quality, seem to have been beautiful. One of these periods comes
and there is the magnificent bronze-covered Etruscan one from within the Middle Ages, though right at their end; for during the
Monteleone in Italy (preserved in the Metropolitan Museum in second half of the fifteenth century nearly every weapon and piece
New Y ork)-thoughc this was probably a ceremonial chariot, of armour of good quality was beautiful-with beauty of form, not
not for use in war, for by the seventh century B.C. the civilized of ornament. This we shall see later; but the other is prehistoric. In
peoples of the Mediterranean used chariots only for sport and the period which can be vaguely described as the Celtic Iron Age
ceremony. It was left to the barbarians to continue the old tradition, (more precisely as the time of the La Tene cultures) weapons and
22
23