The abundance of the elements (Interscience monographs and texts in physics and astronomy)

293 Pages·1961·12.37 MB·English

by  Lawrence H Aller

INTERSCIENCE MONOGRAPHS AND TEXTS
IN PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
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Edited by R. E.
Volume I: K. R. Cohen, K. M. Crowe, andJ. W. M. DuMond
THE FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS OF PHYSICS
Volume II: G. J. Dienesand G. H. Vineyard
RADIATION EFFECTS IN SOLIDS
Volume III: N. N. Bo^oliubovand D. V. Shirkov
INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF
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TECHNIQUES OF HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS
Volume VI: R. N. Thomas and R. G. Athay
PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CHROMOSPHERE
VolumeVII: Lawrence H. Aller
THE ABUNDANCE OF THE ELEMENTS
Additionalvolumes inpreparation
INTERSCIENCE MONOGRAPHS AND TEXTS
IN PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
MAHSHAK
Edited by R. E.
Unhvrsily ofRochester, Rochester, New York
VOLUME
VII
Editorial Advisory Hoard
H. ALFVKN, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
L. V. BERKNER, Associated Universities, New >ork. New >ork
H. J. BHAB11A, Tata Institute, Hombay, India
N. N. BOGOLIUBOV, Academy of Sciences, Moscow, U, S, S. H.
S. CIIANDRASEKHAR, Yerkes Observatory, Williams Hay, Wisconsin
J. W, DuMONl), (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
L. GOLDBERG, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
M. GOLDHABER, Krookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New >ork
C. HERRING, Dell Telephone I^altoratories, Murray Hill, New Jersey
J. KAPLAN, University of California, Los Angeles, California
C. M0LLER, Institute for Theoretical Physics, Copenhagen, Denmark
L. NEEL, University of (Irenoble, (irenoblf, Prance
W. K. II. PANOFSKY, Stanford University, Stanford, California
R. E. PEIERLS, University of Hirminyharn, /Birmingham, /England
F. PRESS, (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
B. ROSSI, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
L. SPITZER, Jr., Princeton Observatory, Princeton, New Jersey
B. STROMGRKN, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey
(r TOHALDO di FRANCIA, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
G. E. IJHLENRECK, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
V. F. VVEISSKOPF, Cern, Geneva, Switzerland
II. YUKAWA, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
THE ABUNDANCE
OF THE ELEMENTS
LAWRENCE ALLRR
II.
The Observatory ofthe University of Michigan,
Ann
Arbor, Michigan
INTERSCIENCE PUBLISHERS, INC., NEW YORK
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HENRY NORRIS RUSSELL

Preface
Anyattempttoassessabundancesofelementsisdifficultbecause
ofthevastvarietyintypesofinformationavailable. Theearth'scrust,
meteorites, the sun, stars, and gaseous nebulae all present different
problems, require different analytical techniques, and yieldresultsof
varying accuracy. Because of its complex geochemical history, the
earth's crust has a particularly involved structure. Likewise,
meteoritespresent ahost ofdifficulties in interpretation, although we
believe that they are capable of yielding more accurate data concern-
ing the composition ofthe solar system than the earth's crust-
Accordingly, I have discussed the earth's crustandmeteoritesin
abrief, descriptivewayandhaveconcentratedonabundancesderived
from celestial objects. A short summary of theories ofelement build-
ing in stars is given in the last chapter.
Preparation of this review would have been impossible had it
notbeenforconsiderablehelpfromchemists,geophysicists,geologists,
cosmic-ray and nuclear physicists, and fellow astronomers interested
in abundance problems. Valuable comments and advice on the manu-
script have been given by S. Bashkin, W. P. Bidelman, Geoffrey
Burbidge, Margaret Burbidge, Harrison Brown, A. G. W. Cameron,
E. L. Fireman, W. A. Fowler, W. Hazen, G. Hawkins, J. Klarmann,
J. F. Lovering, G. J. F. MacDonald, J. B. Marion, B. E. Marshark,
D. B. McLaughlin, P. Millman, H. H. Nininger, D. C. Peaslee, B.
Peters, A. Poldervaart, K. Bankama, A. E. Bingwood, M. P. Save-
doff, S. B. Taylor, II. C. Urey, G. K. Yates, IT.Zanstra, the late F. C.
Leonard, and others. Helpful discussions with Leo Goldberg, J. L.
Greenstein, Edith Miiller, andmany other astronomers are gratefully
recalled. Gratitude is expressed to the University of Chicago Press
for permission to use material from the AslrophysicalJournal and its
PREFACE
viii
Supplement and to the editors of Reviews ofModern Physics for per-
mission to reproduce illustrations from the Burbidge, Fowler, and
Hoyle article.
April 1961 LAWRENCE H. ALLER
"Lapstone" Glen Road
Emu Plains, New South Wales
Contents
1. TheNatureand ScopeoftheProblem ofElemental Abundances 1
1-1. Introductory Remarks 1
1-2. Some Definitions .... 1
1-3. SourcesofData 3
.
1-1. ConcerningtheLuminosities,Color,andSpectraofStars. . 6
1-5. ElementBuildingin Stars 20
2 Composition oftheEarth and Its Crust 25
..
2-1. Introduction. .. . 25
2-2. Concerning the Structureof the Karth ... . 27
2-3. AbundancesofElementsinthe Earth's Crust 29
.
2-1. The Internal Structure ofthe Earth and Its Mean Com-
position .... . . 31
2-5. The Structure and Compositionof the Planets 36
3. Meteorites 40
3-1. Introduction ... 40
3-2. TypesofMeteorites.... 42
3-3. The RelativeProportionsofDifferent Typesof Metwrites 45
3-4. Qualitative MineralogicalandChemical Featuresof Mete-
oriteCompositions.... .... 46
3-5. The Agesand Originsof Meteorites 47
3-6. Ix>ssofElements by Fractionation 51
3-7. Abundances in Meteorites 52
3-8. The CompositionofMeteors 57
4. Abundances Derviedfrom Gaseous Nebulae 60
4-1. Advantagesand Disadvantages 60
4-2. Excitation ofthe Bright-LineSpectrum ... . 63
4-3. Determination of the Ionic Concentrations.... ... 69
4-1. Estimatesofthe lonization 71
4-5. Compositionofthe Interstellar Medium. 76
ix
x CONTENTS
5. Abundances ofElements from Normal Stellar Atmospheres. 79
5-1. The Observational Data .... 79
5-2. The Continuous SpectraoftheStars 82
5-3. The Coefficientof Line Absorption . . 87
5-1. Transition Probabilitiesand Damping Constants 91
5-5. The Analysis of Stellar Atmosphere's in the Isothermal
Approximation . . 96
5-6. Methodof Model Atmospheres . . . 105
5-7. The Application of Model-Atmosphere Methods to the
InterpretationofStellar Atmosphere Compositions . 108
5-8. Stellar Applicationsof the Model-Atmosphere Techniques 11$
5-9. The Composition ofthe Sun . . . 118
5-10. Deviations from Thermodynamic HquiliLrium and Other
Complications . 135
5-11. Diffusion 136
.. .
5 12. Improvements in the Basic Dataand Their Interpretation 138
6. Abundances from Cosmic Ravs 1 12
6-1. Introduction 112
6-2. The Energy Spectrum 1 13
6 3. The Charge Distribution Spectrum 111
6-1. Suggested Abundances in Cosmic Rays 1 16
6-5. Interpretation ofCosmic-Ray Abundances . 117
7. IsotopeAbundances .... . . 151
7-1. Introduction 151
7-2. Kmpirical Rules for the Stability of Nuclei. 153
7-3. Terrestrial Isotope Abundances 158
7-1. The Missing Elements . . 159
7-5. Astrophysical Studiesof Isotope Ratios . 160
8. General Abundance Compilations 170
....
8-1. Introduction 170
. .
8-2. TheSuess-Urey Semi-Kmpirical AbundanceTabulation. 171
8-3. Cameron'sAbundance; Compilation and Nucleogenesis 188
8-1. An Abundance Compilation Based Primarily on Astro-
physical Data 190
9. Composition Differencesbetween Stars ... . . 199
9-1. Introduction 199