Teaching Writing In The Content Areas PDF
Preview Teaching Writing In The Content Areas
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development • Alexandria, Virginia USA Mid-continental Research for Education and Learning • Aurora, Colorado USA AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment 1703N.BeauregardSt.•Alexandria,VA22311-1714USA Phone:800-933-2723or703-578-9600(cid:127)Fax:703-575-5400 Website:www.ascd.org(cid:127)E-mail:[email protected] Authorguidelines:www.ascd.org/write Mid-continentResearchforEducationandLearning 2550S.ParkerRoad,Suite500, Aurora,CO80014-1678USA Telephone:303-337-0990 Fax:303-337-3005 Website:http://www.mcrel.org E-mail:[email protected] GeneR.Carter,ExecutiveDirector;NancyModrak,DirectorofPublishing;JulieHoutz,DirectorofBookEditing&Production;Tim Sniffin,ProjectManager;ShelleyKirby,GraphicDesigner;JimBeals,DesktopPublishingSpecialist;EricCoyle,ProductionSpecialist Copyright(cid:1)2005byMcREL.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyform orbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopy,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem, withoutpermissionfromASCD.ReaderswhowishtoduplicatematerialcopyrightedbyASCDmaydosoforasmallfeeby contactingtheCopyrightClearanceCenter(CCC),222RosewoodDr.,Danvers,MA01923,USA(phone:978-750-8400; fax:978-646-8600;Web:http://www.copyright.com).Forrequeststoreprintratherthanphotocopy,contactASCD’spermis- sionsoffice:[email protected]. PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Coverartcopyright(cid:1)2005byASCD. ASCDpublicationspresentavarietyofviewpoints.Theviewsexpressedorimpliedinthisbookshouldnotbeinterpretedasoffi- cialpositionsoftheAssociation. AllWeblinksinthisbookarecorrectasofthepublicationdatebelowbutmayhavebecomeinactiveorotherwisemodifiedsince thattime.Ifyounoticeadeactivatedorchangedlink,[email protected]“LinkUpdate”inthesubject line.Inyourmessage,pleasespecifytheWeblink,thebooktitle,andthepagenumberonwhichthelinkappears. PaperbackISBN:1-4166-0171-6 ASCDproduct105036ListPrice:$26.95($20.95ASCDmemberprice,directfromASCD only) s5/05 e-books($26.95):retailPDFISBN:1-4166-0294-1netLibraryISBN1-4166-0292-5 ebraryISBN1-4166-0293-3 Quantitydiscountsforthepaperbackbook:10–49copies,10%;50+copies,15%;for500ormorecopies,call800-933-2723,ext. 5634,or703-575-5634. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Urquhart,Vicki,1950- Teachingwritinginthecontentareas/VickiUrquhartandMonetteMcIver. p.cm. Includesindex. ISBN1-4166-0171-6(alk.paper) 1. Languagearts—Correlationwithcontentsubjects.2. Englishlanguage—Compositionandexercises—Studyandteaching. I. McIver,Monette,1964-II.Title. LB1576.U742005 808’.042’071—dc22 2005002997 _________________________________________________ 1211100908070605121110987654321 Teaching Writing in the Content Areas Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Section 1. The Role of Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Section 2. The Role of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Section 3. The Role of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Section 4. The Role of the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Section 5. Strategies for Teaching Writing in the Content Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Acknowledgments Asistrueofallpublications,ittakesateamefforttoseeadocumentto itsconclusion.Thispublicationisnodifferent.Theauthorsgratefully acknowledgetheteameffortofcolleaguesatMid-continentResearchfor EducationandLearning(McREL).Inparticular,wethankthefollowing McRELstaffmembers:TerryYoungandBeckyVanBuhlerforlocating andreviewingresearchstudies,LindaBrannanforoverseeingcopyright permissions,HelenApthorpforsharingherknowledgeandunderstand- ingofresearch,JenniferNorfordforhermeticulousreview,andBrian Lancasterforhisgraphicdesigncontribution.AdrienneSchure,the book’seditor,insightfullyandpatientlyguidedtheauthorsfromthe beginning.Inaddition,PaulTurelliandCindyO’Donnell-Allenpro- videdinvaluableinsightsthroughtheirexternalqualityassurancereviews ofthemanuscript. v INTRODUCTION Why a Guidebook for Teaching Writing in the Content Areas? A swecompletedwritingthefirstsectionofthisguidebook,Vicki sharedastoryfromheryearsintheclassroom.Sherecalledthat whenherfamilymovedfromthecitywhereshehadtaughthigh schoolfor10years,thestudentsinoneofherclassesgaveherasmall, attractivejournalthattheyhaddutifullypassedonetotheother.Eachhad pennedafewlinesfromafavoritepoemorbookandwrittenagoodbye wish.Asyoumightexpect,itisoneofhergreatesttreasurestothisday.In thissimpleact,herstudentstoldherthattheyhad“gotten”theiryear together.Theyunderstoodwhatthereading,discussing,writing,revising, andpresentinghadbeenabout.Moreimportant,theyvaluedit. Sheisnotaloneinhavingstorieslikethis—allteachershavethem, whethertheyteachphysics,French,orworldhistory.Throughwriting, Vickicametoknowherstudents,whattheywerethinking,andwhatthey were(orwerenot)learning.Teachingwritingisuniqueinthisway.Itben- efitsbothteacherandstudent,servingascommunicationvehicle,assess- menttool,andintellectualexercise.Admittedly,thiswaspartofher rationalefordevelopingthisguidebook. Knowingthateducatorswantandneedthisguidanceisanevenmore compellingreasonfordoingit.Wecontinuetohearfromthem:the instructionalcoordinatorwhosaidthatshehasbeenwaitingforjustsucha guidebookforyears,thelanguageartsinstructionalspecialistwhoputher nameonawaitinglistbecauseherdistricthasanewwritinginitiative,and thescienceteacherwhosimplysaid,“I’vealwaysbelievedthatifyouwrite, youthink.”Otherscienceeducatorsacknowledgetheneedforcreative ideasintheirsubject,andinturn,forallsortsofwritingtoreflecttheideas ofscience. Althoughweexpectthisguidetobeusefultocurriculumspecialists anddistrict-levelcoordinators,itistothethirdeducator,whointuitively understandsthefundamentalrelationshipbetweenthinkingandwriting, 2 Introduction 3 thatwespecificallyaddressourdiscussionabouttheresearchbehindtheteaching ofwriting.Highqualityresearchwillbestprepareteachersforthefuture.Anditis thefuturethatisatstake.Increasingly,werecognizehowvitaleffectivewritingisto successineducationandintheworkplace.A2003reportfromPublicAgenda,a nonprofitorganizationthatconductsnationalopinionpollsonvariousissues, reflectsthissentiment: Forfiveconsecutiveyearsbetween1998and2002,largemajoritiesofemployers andprofessorshavebeenreportingprofounddissatisfactionwiththeskillsof recentpublicschoolgraduates.Theyareespeciallycriticalofyoungsters’com- mandofgrammarandspelling,theirabilitytowriteclearlyandtheircapacityto dosimplemath.Andprofessorsandemployersarenotalonewhenitcomesto theseconcerns.Justonehighschoolteacheroutoffivesaysstudentsinhisor herownschooltypicallylearns“tospeakandwritewell,withproperpronuncia- tionandgrammar.”(p.22) Resultsfromthe2002NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)writ- ingassessmentdrawfurtherattentiontotheteachingofwriting.Despiteshowingsome overallgainsfromthe1998scoresatthe4thand8thgradelevels,about80percentof studentswhotookthe2002NAEPwritingassessmentcouldwriteonlya“basic” response,leavingmorethantwo-thirdsofthenation’sstudentsstillperformingbelow theproficientlevelinwriting(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2003). Forcollege-boundstudentsinterestedinaprofessionalcareer,beingableto writewellismoreimportantthanever,regardlessofthefield.However,collegefac- ultyareconcernedthathighschoolgraduates’writingfallsbelowpar.Middle schoolandhighschoolteachers,regardlessofcontentareaspecialization,helppre- pareallstudentsforcollegeandbeyondwhentheyinfusewritingintoinstruction. Writingisaprocessofexplorationthatoffersbenefitstostudentsandcontent areateachersalike.Asstudentswritetomaketheirideasclearandcomprehensible, theyexperiencethefunofdiscovery,andsodotheirteachers. The Research Base Most of the research suggests that students benefit by writing in all content areas—that it enhances critical thinking; allows students to take greater responsibility for their own learning; promotes reflective thinking and ques- tioning; and helps students make connections between events, people, and ideas. Of course, students need to acquire content, but it is just as crucial for them to develop the reading and writing skills that apply to learning that content. For example, when a student in a mathematics classroom writes an explanation to others about how to solve a numerical problem, he or she is doing much more than acquiring content and demonstrating mastery of a 4 Teaching Writing in the Content Areas benchmark—thisstudentiscommunicatingandproblemsolving.Studentstend tothinkofmathematicsintermsofrules,facts,numbers,andsoon.Unfortu- nately,manystudentsneverseethepossibilitiesforproblemsolvingthatmathe- maticsofferstheworld.Whenstudentsposetheirownquestionsandwrite aboutpossiblesolutionsusingtheskillsofsymbolizing,organizing,interpreting, andexplaining,theybegintoseethosepossibilities. Thequestionsforalleducatorsthenbecomethese:Whataretheeffectsofwrit- ingonlearning?Doesresearchsupportthebeliefthatwritingandthinkinggo handinhand?Theanswersarecontainedinmorethan30years’worthofeduca- tionresearch,someofitquiterigorous,aboutwhatworksandwhatdoesnot.For instance,wecanturntotheresultsofameta-analysisontheeffectsofschool-based writing-to-learninterventionsonacademicachievement.Bangert-Drowns,Hurley, andWilkinson(2004)reportedthatwhentheyexaminedtheeffectsofwriting-to- learnprograms,theyfoundthat(1)writingcanbeexpectedtoenhancelearningin academicsettings,(2)writingtasksneednotbeelaboratetobeeffective,and(3) teachingwriting“isnotapotentmagic”(p.53).Ofcourse,apotentmagiciswhat wewouldreallylike!Shortofthat,however,wehaveinsightsintowhatworks,and althoughambiguitiespersist,someresearchfindingsareclear. Asaresultoftheir1963bookResearchinWritingComposition,Braddock, Lloyd-Jones,andSchoer(ascitedinHillocks,1986)spreadtheideathatteaching grammarhasanegligible,orevenharmful,effectonimprovingwriting.This watershedideacausedlanguageartsteacherstoviewgrammarinstructiondiffer- ently,andasaresult,theybegantochangetheirpractice,relyinginsteadongood piecesofwritingasmodelsofcorrectgrammar. Withanassistfromcognitivepsychologists,contemporarywritingresearch beganbreakingnewgroundintheearly1980s.Someresearcherslearnedmore abouthowthebrainprocessesinformation,includingwritingtasks:“Forthefirst timeinthehistoryofteachingwritingwehavespecialistswhoaredoingcontrolled anddirectedresearchonwriters’composingprocesses”(Hairston,ascitedin Graves,1999,p.11).Instructorsatthepost-secondarylevelwastednotimeapply- ingsomeofthenewresearchandadoptedanapproachcalledWritingAcrossthe Curriculum,orWAC.Unfortunately,thisideaofwritinginallcontentareasonly trickleddowntohighschoolsandmiddleschools,andmanyteacherssimplydidn’t receiveanyinstructionorguidanceinhoworwhytoteachwritinganywhereother thananEnglishclassroom. Yetonepositiveinfluenceoflinguisticresearchandresearchintothecomposing processwasthatamajorityoflanguageartsteachersbegantofocusontheprocess ofwritingratherthantheproduct.Inthepast,teachershadassumedthat Introduction 5 1. Writersbeginwithaformfororganizingcontentbecausetheyalwaysknow whatthey’regoingtowrite, 2. Composingisalinearprocess,and 3. Teachingeditingisteachingwriting. Incontrast,recentassumptionsreflectteachersbeginningtounderstandwriting asbothanintellectualactivityandamethodoflearningandinstruction.Direct andindirectreferencestotheseassumptionsappearthroughoutthisbook: 1. Writingisarecursiveprocess,whichmeansstudentsrevisethroughoutthe process,frequentlymovingbackandforthamongthestages. 2. Studentsshouldlearnstrategiesforinventionanddiscovery,andteachers shouldhelpstudentsgeneratecontentanddiscoverpurpose. 3. Audience,purpose,andoccasiondefinealltypesofwriting. 4. Effectivewritingfulfillsthewriter’sintentionandmeetstheaudience’s needs. 5. Allteacherscanusewritingtoimprovecontentlearning. Ofcourse,researchdoesnotanswerallthequestions,andsomedisputesare ongoing.Forexample,atboththecollegeandhighschoollevel,educatorsdis- agreeaboutwhatkindsortypesofwritingtoincludeinthecurriculum.Some educatorsassertthatstudentsdonotdoenoughwritinginvolvingoriginal inquiry,somesaythatteachersneglectargument,andotherssaythattheyover- emphasizenarrative.Itseemscertainthatwewillcontinuetodebatemanyques- tions,buttheresearchwehaveavailablecanhelpusmakedecisionsnow. Our Approach Threeimportantfactorstoconsiderinadiscussionofteachingwritingareresearch, theory,andstrategies.Itmightbehelpfultothinkofthemintheseterms: • Research:Sincethe1980s,mucheducationresearchhasbeenqualitative, usingmethodsadaptedfromthesocialsciences,includingsystematicobserva- tionandinterviews.Quantitativeresearchreliesmoreonstatisticalprocedures tocompareeffectsofonetreatmentwithanother.Researchersaredividedon whichapproachisbest.Throughoutthisguide,wepointouttheidentifying characteristicsoftheresearchcited.
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