Sturkie's Avian Physiology

1458 Pages·2021·38.147 MB·English

by  Colin G. Scanes (editor), Sami Dridi (editor)

Sturkie’s Avian Physiology
Seventh Edition
Edited by
Colin G. Scanes
Department of Biological Science, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States;
Center of Excellence for Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Sami Dridi
Center of Excellence for Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
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To our mentors who have guided and inspired us and our
families who have given us so much support.
Contributors
N.J. Beausoleil, Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel;
Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey Univer- Miloubar Feedmill, Ashrat Industrial Area, Israel
sity, Palmerston North, Manawat(cid:1)u, New Zealand
Hans H. Cheng, USDA, ARS, Avian Disease and
Charles M. Bishop, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor Oncology Laboratory, East Lansing, MI, United States
University, Bangor, Gwynedd, United Kingdom
Helen E. Chmura, Institute of Arctic Biology, University
Julio Blas, Department of Conservation Biology, Estación of Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, United States
Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Inves-
LarryClark,METIS,Ltd.,FortCollins,CO,UnitedStates
tigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Seville, Spain
Mark A. Cline, Department of Animal and Poultry Sci-
WalterGayBottje,DepartmentofPoultryScience,Center
ences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
of Excellence for Poultry Science, Division of Agri-
Jamie M. Cornelius, Department of Integrative Biology,
culture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
United States
Dane A. Crossley, Department of Biological Sciences,
Kathleen R. Brazeal, School of Biological Sciences,
University of North Texas, Denton, TX, United States
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United
States Veerle M. Darras, Department of Biology, KU Leuven,
Leuven, Belgium
Lindsay P. Brown, Department of Chemistry, University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States Karen D.M. Dean, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge,
AB, Canada
ShaneC.Burgess,CollegeofAgriculture&LifeSciences,
The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States Eddy Decuypere, Laboratory of Livestock Physiology,
Department of Biosystems, Faculty of Bioscience
Warren W. Burggren, Developmental and Integrative
Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Biology, Department of Biological Science, University
of North Texas, Denton, TX, United States Mike Denbow, Department of Animal and Poultry Sci-
ences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
Johan Buyse, Laboratory of Livestock Physiology,
Department of Biosystems, Faculty of Bioscience En- Pierre Deviche, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State
gineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium University, Tempe, AZ, United States
Shawn R. Campagna, Department of Chemistry, Univer- Sami Dridi, Center of Excellence for Poultry Science,
sity of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States; UniversityofArkansas,Fayetteville,AR,UnitedStates
Biological and Small Molecule Mass Spectrometry
Joëlle Dupont, PRC (UMR 6175), INRA, Nouzilly,
Core, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United
France;Unité dePhysiologie de laReproduction etdes
States
Comportements, Institut National de la Recherche
Rocco V. Carsia, Department of Cell Biology and Neu- Agronomique, Nouzilly, France
roscience, Rowan University School of Osteopathic
Vijay Durairaj, Huvepharma Inc., Lincoln, NE, United
Medicine, Stratford, NJ, United States
States
Vincent M. Cassone, Department of Biology, University
Edward M. Dzialowski, Department of Biological
of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX,
Natalia Cerón-Romero, Food and Animal Sciences, Ala- United States
bama A&M University, Huntsville, AL, United States
Nima K. Emami, Center of Excellence for Poultry
Shira L. Cheled Shoval, Department of Animal Science, Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR,
The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and United States
xxvii
xxviii Contributors
Nadia Everaert, Precision Livestock and Nutrition Unit, Michael H. Kogut, Southern Plains Agricultural Research
TERRA Teaching and Research Centre, Gembloux Center,USDA-ARS,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux,
DanielT.Ksepka,BruceMuseum,Greenwich,CT,United
Belgium
States
Graham D. Fairhurst, School of Environment and Sus- Christine Köppl, Cluster of Excellence “Hearing4all”,
tainability,UniversityofSaskatchewan,Saskatoon,SK,
Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany;
Canada
Research Center Neurosensory Science, Carl von
Alison Ferver, Center of Excellence for Poultry Science, Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany; Department
UniversityofArkansas,Fayetteville,AR,UnitedStates ofNeuroscience,SchoolofMedicineandHealthScience,
Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany
AlexanderR.Fisch,DepartmentofChemistry,University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States Wayne J. Kuenzel, Poultry Science Center, University of
Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
Joel Gautron, BOA, INRAE, Université de Tours,
Fonction et Régulation des protéines de l’œuf, Vinod Kumar, Department of Zoology, University of
Développement de l’œuf, Valorisation, Évolution, Delhi, Delhi, India
France
H. Lehmann, Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics
Elizabeth Gilbert, Department of Animal and Poultry Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey Univer-
Sciences,VirginiaTech,Blacksburg,VA,UnitedStates sity, Palmerston North, Manawat(cid:1)u, New Zealand
David L. Goldstein, Department of Biological Sciences, Scott A. MacDougall-Shackleton, Departments of Psy-
Wright State University, Dayton, OH, United States chology and Biology, University of Western, London,
ON, Canada
Elizabeth S. Greene, Center of Excellence for Poultry
Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, Graham R. Martin, School of Biosciences, University of
United States Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Christopher G. Guglielmo, Department of Biology, J.E. Martin, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies
Advanced Facility for Avian Research, Western Uni- and the Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh,
versity, London, ON, Canada Edinburgh, Scotland
Thomas P. Hahn, Department of Neurobiology, Physiol- Amanda L. May, Center for Environmental Bio-
ogyandBehavior,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA, technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN,
United States United States
Orna Halevy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Andrew E. McKechnie, South African Research Chair in
Rehovot, Israel; The Ohio State University, Wooster, Conservation Physiology, South African National Bio-
OH, United States diversity Institute, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa;
DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence at the FitzPatrick
Maxwell Hincke, Department of Innovation in Medical
Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology,
Education; Department of Cellular and Molecular
University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria, Gauteng,
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa,
South Africa
Ottawa, ON, Canada
D.E.F. McKeegan, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal
S.E. Holdsworth, Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics
Health and Comparative Medicine, University of
Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey Univer-
sity, Palmerston North, Manawat(cid:1)u, New Zealand Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
Scott R. McWilliams, Department of Natural Resources
Christa F. Honaker, Department of Animal and Poultry
Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI,
Sciences,VirginiaTech,Blacksburg,VA,UnitedStates
United States
Anna Hrabia, Department of Animal Physiology and
Henrik Mouritsen, Institut für Biologie und Umweltwis-
Endocrinology, University of Agriculture in Krakow,
senschaften, Universität Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Ger-
Krakow, Poland
many; Research Centre for Neurosensory Sciences,
Alexander Jurkevich, Advanced Light Microscopy Core,
University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
Casey A. Mueller, Department of Biological Sciences,
John Kirby, College of the Environment and Life Sci-
California State University San Marcos, San Marcos,
ences, The University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI,
CA, United States
United States
Contributors xxix
YvesNys,BOA,INRAE,UniversitédeTours,Fonctionet Cynthia A. Smeraski, Science Education and Literacy
Régulation des protéines de l’œuf, Développement de Foundational Program, Fort Collins, CO, United States
l’œuf, Valorisation, Évolution, France
Nurudeen Taofeek, Food and Animal Sciences, Alabama
Mary Ann Ottinger, Department of Biology and Bio- A&M University, Huntsville, AL, United States
chemistry,UniversityofHouston,Houston,TX,United
Hiroshi Tazawa, Developmental and Integrative Biology,
States
Department of Biological Science, University of North
Barbara J. Pierce, Department of Biology, Sacred Heart Texas, Denton, TX, United States
University, Fairfield, CT, United States
Zehava Uni, Department of Animal Science, The Robert
Tom E. Porter, Department of Animal and Avian Sci- H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environ-
ences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, ment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel
United States
Sandra G. Velleman, The Hebrew University of Jerusa-
Frank L. Powell, Department of Medicine Division of lem, Rehovot, Israel; The Ohio State University,
Pulmonary,CriticalCare,SleepMedicine,Universityof Wooster, OH, United States
California, San Diego La Jolla, CA, United States
Jorge A. Vizcarra, Food and Animal Sciences, Alabama
Monika Proszkowiec-Weglarz,United StatesDepartment A&M University, Huntsville, AL, United States
of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal
BrynnH.Voy,DepartmentofAnimalScience,University
Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Beltsville,
of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
MD, United States
Yajun Wang, Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-
Marilyn Ramenofsky, Department of Neurobiology,
environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life
Physiology and Behavior, University of California,
Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, PR
Davis, CA, United States
China
Narayan C. Rath, USDA/Agricultural Research Service
WesleyC.Warren,DepartmentofAnimalSciences,Bond
and Department of Poultry Science, University of
Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Colum-
Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
bia, MO, United States
Nicole Rideau, Recherches Avicoles, (UR 83), INRA,
Heather E. Watts, School of Biological Sciences,
Nouzilly, France; Unité de Recherches Avicoles,
Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United
InstitutNationaldelaRechercheAgronomique,Nouzilly,
States
France
J. Martin Wild, Department of Anatomy and Medical
Alejandro B. Rodriguez-Navarro, Departmento de Min-
Imaging, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences,
eralogia y Petrologia, Universidad de Granada, Spain
University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
ColinG.Scanes,CenterofExcellenceforPoultryScience, John C. Wingfield, Department of Neurobiology, Physi-
UniversityofArkansas,Fayetteville,AR,UnitedStates;
ology and Behavior, University of California, Davis,
Department of Biological Sciences, University of
CA, United States
Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
Takashi Yoshimura, Laboratory of Animal Integrative
ElizabethM.Schultz,DepartmentofBiology,Wittenberg
Physiology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sci-
University, Springfield, OH, United States
ences, Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules,
Paul B. Siegel, Department of Animal and Poultry Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan
Sciences,VirginiaTech,Blacksburg,VA,UnitedStates
HuaijunZhou,DepartmentofAnimalScience,University
Jean Simon, Recherches Avicoles, (UR 83), INRA, of California, Davis, CA, United States
Nouzilly, France
Chapter 1
The importance of avian physiology
John C. Wingfield
DepartmentofNeurobiology,PhysiologyandBehavior,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,UnitedStates
The 20th century saw many revolutionary advances in the well as the complex interplay of physiology, behavior,
biological sciences. In 100years, biology progressed from cells, and molecules by which individuals function and
cataloginganddescribingspeciestosequencingthehuman interact.Managementandcontroloftheseissuesinrelation
genome. Along the way, astounding advances were made to natural resources will also be difficult unless there are
in cell and molecular biology, biomechanics, physiology, incentives to foster interdisciplinary research, integrate
theoreticalecology,genetics,behavioral neurobiology, etc. education,andmaximizeourpotentialtoaddressproblems
Theseandotherareasofthebiologicalsciencescontinueto by bringing to bear all of our knowledge in an effective
develop with Aves an important model group for links way. Citing a report from the National Academy of Sci-
between environment and gene expression (e.g., Konishi ences,Jasanoffetal.(1997)assertthatinthenextdecades,
etal.,1989). Environmental change including degradation, young scientists will be impeded in their advancement
population, public health, food and energy production, unless they are trained from an early age to diversify their
education, and especially the public’s understanding of expertise and career objectives.
scienceandtechnologyaresomeofthemostcriticalissues As an example of the need to integrate ecology,
facing science and society. All of these pertain to biology. behavior, and evolutionary biology with mechanisms at
Technology and basic research in biological sciences have physiological, genetic, cell, and molecular levels, we can
thepotentialtoaddresstheaboveissues,buttheycannotbe consider the functions of a differentiated cell in which
understood along traditional disciplinary lines. One enor- complex interactions of many proteins occur. These func-
mous hurdle awaits 21st century biological research: how tions can be modified by hormones that coordinate gene
to integrate our knowledge of biology at all levels so we activity among various cells and tissues of the organism
canpavethewayforadeeperandbroaderunderstandingof leading to the ultimate responses to internal and external
how life on this planet works? This will also entail how to environmental signals. A critical question is then how do
feed a still burgeoning population and educate future gen- hormones orchestrate transitions in morphology, physi-
erationsofundergraduateswhileconservingasmuchofthe ology,andbehaviorofindividualorganismsinrelationtoa
naturalworldaspossible?Ifthiswerenotenough,wemust changing, and sometimes capricious environment? We can
also deal with potentially catastrophic environmental imagine observing an ecosystem and focusing on certain
problems resulting from climate change. populations of individuals within it that have problems
Amajorrecurringproblemwiththespectacularsuccess dealing with change in the environment triggered by, for
biology has experienced is that individual investigators example, human disturbance. It quickly becomes apparent
havebecomesospecializedandfocusedthatinmanycases that some populations, and individuals within them, deal
they have, understandably, lost track of other disciplines. with the environmental challenges better than others. It is
There is a growing consensus that biologists within disci- reasonable to then ask what aspects of their physiology,
plines have difficulty communicating with colleagues in behavior, and morphology are the causes of this failure, or
otherbranchesofbiology.Clearly,theproblemswefacein success, and what the cell, molecular, and genetic bases of
the next decades will be solved only by taking broad these differences might be. The investigation of interindi-
integrative approaches involving expansive, multidisci- vidual variation will be another foundation for under-
plinarycollaborations.Inotherwords,molecularbiologyor standing how populations will evolve in response to
theoretical ecology in isolation will not resolve problems environmental change. It is relatively simple to construct
that involve populations, their component individuals, as hypotheticalscenarioswherebywetraversethespectrumof
Sturkie’sAvianPhysiology.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819770-7.00004-9
3
Copyright©2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
4 PART | I Undergirdingthemes
biological science from ecosystem to molecule in either physiologywillbeacentralfocusforsuchintegration.The
direction,butitisnotsointuitivelyobvioushowwedothis examples given below are by no means all inclusive and
in practical terms. If such an interdisciplinary and integra- new concepts and research directions are inevitable.
tive approach can be achieved, it will be possible to
determine how we will deal with global changes already
1.1.1 Physiology and poultry production
underwayandultimatelypreparefuturegenerationstocope
with ongoing changes. Physiologicalfunctionsofdomesticfowlfromreproduction
Avian physiology has a long history of providing and growth to responses to diseases and stress such as
modelsforintegrationofdisciplines,anditwillcontinuein weather factors (especially heat) also triggered thorough
this role in the future (Konishi et al., 1989). In general, investigations of environmental biology and hormonal
there are exceptionally broad data bases for birds on ecol- control of these processes (see Sturkie’s Avian Physiology
ogyandevolutionacrosstheglobe.Matchthiswithrapidly revised editions from 1954 to 2020). The domestic fowl
developingtoolsatgenomic,transcriptomic,andepigenetic and some other domesticated species (e.g., quail. duck,
levels, then avian physiology is uniquely poised midway turkey) provide phenomenally broad data bases of physi-
alongthespectrumfromgenestoenvironmentaltoexplore ology that rival those of mammals and fish. These in turn
the molecular bases of adaptation and the integration of provide endless opportunities for other studies on wild
ecological and evolutionary aspects at the interfaces of species and gene-environment interactionsdthe founda-
morphology, physiology, and behavior. In addition, many tions of understanding adaptation to a changing world.
wild avian species are abundant and easy to study making
them ideal subjects for field observations and experiments
1.1.2 Physiological ecology and birds, marine,
in their natural environment, as well as in laboratory
freshwater, and terrestrial
experimentation. Specific examples how avian physiology
hasplayedamajorroleinthedevelopmentandintegration
Birds have played a central role in the development of
of biological processes at many functional levels are dis- physiologicalecology,especiallybuildingonthevastarray
cussed next. of data, techniques and tools made available from agricul-
tural research (Phillips et al., 1985; Konishi et al., 1989).
1.1 Specific examples of the Avianphysiologicalecologyisathrivingbranchofbiology
importance of avian physiology that has provided a framework for other emerging topics
such as environmental endocrinology, the regulation of
Avianphysiologyhasitsrootsinover100yearsofresearch seasonal changes in physiology, and individual differences
on domesticated species, particularly the domestic fowl and fitness. (e.g., Hau et al., 2010; Taff and Vitousek,
(Gallus gallus) as presented in the original version of 2016). Avian migration is a prime example of the integra-
Sturkie’s Avian Physiology (Sturkie, 1954). Over the de- tion of physiological systems that has benefitted enor-
cades since there have been huge advances in avian phys- mously from avian physiology in general (Newton, 2010;
iology focused primarily on the poultry industry and food Dingle, 2014;Ramenofsky and Wingfield, 2007). This has
production. Then in the early 21st century, the chicken fueled investigations of one of the most integrative bio-
genome was sequenced and annotated (e.g., Burt, 2005; logical processesdthe evolution, ecology, morphology,
BurtandPourquie,2003).Thisopenedupanewgeneration physiology, and behavior of movements across the envi-
of biological studies at many of the interfaces outlined ronment in general.
above, and was followed by sequencing the genome of a Fundamentalandappliedresearchondomesticfowlhas
songbird, the zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata (Warren enricheddevelopmentofavianphysiologyinrelationtothe
et al., 2010). As technologies developed to sequence comparative biology of environmental stress (Romero and
genomes more quickly and cheaply, the genomes of many Wingfield,2016).Allorganismsmustbeabletocopewith
otherspecieshavebeensequencedaspartofambitiousand perturbations of the environment that are largely unpre-
excitingprojectstoeventuallysequencethegenomesofall dictable, but require individuals to express facultative
the extant species of birds and some extinct ones as well physiologicalandbehavioralresponsestocope.The“stress
(e.g., Zhang et al., 2014). If successful, such an unprece- response” is common to most, if not all, organisms from
dented data base will allow analyses at so many levels of bacteria and plants to invertebrate as well as vertebrate
biological function. However, it should be borne in mind animals. Although the mechanisms involved vary funda-
that the computational technologies to analyze such enor- mentally from plants to animals, they are well conserved
mousamountsofdataandintegratethemwithotherdiverse within the vertebrates making avian systems excellent
and unique data bases on morphology, physiology, models. One aspect of climate change is the increase in
behavior, and environment are huge challenges. Avian frequency, duration, and intensity of extreme weather
Importanceofavianphysiology Chapter | 1 5
events such as unseasonal storms, hurricanes, and ty- fundamental biology are vast. In the 21st century, with
phoons. Understanding how some populations cope with technologiesuntilrecentlyunimagined,thesecontributions
these unpredictable events and others do not will have will continue. What could not have been envisaged all
profound implications for understanding adaptation and those decades ago is how avian physiology has helped
consequences for conservation and agriculture. pioneer,initiateanddevelopnew environmental aspects of
New emerging avian models such as the zebra finch, biologicalsciencessuchasmorphologyandbehavioratthe
greattit(Parusmajor,Santureetal.,2011),white-throated interfaces with gene-environment interactions and coping
sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis, Tuttle, 2003), and dark- withglobalchangefromurbanization,endocrinedisrupting
eyed junco (Junco hyemalis, Ketterson and Atwell, 2016) pollutants,andinvasivespeciestotheburgeoningeffectsof
and others, provide field and laboratory contexts for climate change. Thereisnoquestionthatavianphysiology
understanding physiological ecology as well as advancing isveryimportantandwillcontinuetobeatthecuttingedge
basic research in neurobiology such as the physiology ofsomanybranchesofbiologicalsciences.Itwillcontinue
underlying behavioral patterns and avian song control to influence not only basic research but also policy in
systems (see Konishi et al., 1989; Pfaff and Joëls, 2017). managing planet Earth for future generations.
Theseapproachesusingexperimentsbothinthelaboratory
and the field have allowed the beginning of investigations References
of coping with climate change, shifts in habitat range,
urbanization etc. (e.g., Partecke et al., 2006; Fokidis et al., Bonier,F.,2012.Hormonesinthecity:endocrineecologyofurbanbirds.
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Visser and Gienapp, 2019). Birds have become important Burt,D.,2005.Chickengenome:currentstatusandfutureopportunities.
examplesofmodelsforconservationphysiology(Wikelski GenomeRes.15,1692e1698.
and Cooke, 2006; Madlinger et al., 2016). For example, Burt,D.,Pourquie,O.,2003.Chickengenome-sciencenuggetstocome
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populationsassentinelsofendocrinedisruptingchemicals.Ann.1st.
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often devastating impacts on the survival of indigenous case of the missing mechanisms: how does temperature influence
species from plants to mammals.
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birds as sentinels of endocrine disruptiondphysiology, referencetooccurrenceinavianwildlife:areview.Ecotoxicology9,
morphology, and behavior (National Research Council, 9e69.
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well as vertebrates, in general, are all important foci to Fokidis, H.B., Orchinik, M., Deviche, P., 2009. Corticosterone and
corticosteronebindingglobulininbirds:relationtourbanizationina
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birds as models, and their well-known physiology both in
Hau,M.,Ricklefs,R.E.,Wikelski,M.,2010.Corticosterone,testosterone
the laboratory and field once again provide a useful model
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forunderstandinghoworganismsrespondtodisasterssuch
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asleakageoftoxicchemicals,oilspills,etc.Anexampleof
Greenwood,M.R.C.,Huang,A.S.,Lester,W.,Levin,S.I.,Linn,M.C.,
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organisms will cope with the now ubiquitous and global Wexler,N.,1997.Conversationswiththecommunity:AAASatthe
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and how we may be able to ameliorate some of the effects Ketterson, E.D., Atwell, J.W., 2016. Snowbird: Integrative Biology and
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tolerate?
Madlinger, C.L., Cooke, S.J., Crespi, E.J., Funk, J.L., Hultine, K.R.,
Hunt, K.E., Rohr, J.R., Sinclair, B.J., Suski, C.D., Willis, C.K.R.,
1.2 Conclusions
Love,O.P.,2016.Successstoriesandemergingthemesinconserva-
tion physiology. Cons. Physiol. 4, 206. https://doi.org/10.1093/con-
Reading Sturkie’s original avian physiology text (Sturkie,
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developed, expanded, and progressed in almost 70years. of anthropogenic global changes on immune functions and disease
The contributions of avian physiology to agriculture, resistance. Annals NY Acad. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-
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