Song of the Earth: Understanding Geology and Why It Matters PDF
Preview Song of the Earth: Understanding Geology and Why It Matters
Song of the Earth Song of the Earth Understanding Geology and Why It Matters ELISABETH ERVIN-B LANKENHEIM 1 3 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2021 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Control Number: 2021933128 ISBN 978– 0– 19– 750246– 4 DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780197502464.001.0001 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America For those of all ages who want to deepen their knowledge of the Earth, and in particular for my students present and past, you inspire me. Contents Acknowledgments xi Introduction: Why Geology? 1 1. Geology Emerges as a Science: European Roots 6 European Scientific Geological Developments 8 Nicolaus Steno 8 James Hutton 12 Abraham Werner 17 Etheldred Benett 19 William “Strata” Smith 21 William Buckland 22 Charles Lyell 25 Mary Anning 27 Louis Agassiz in Europe 31 Early French Geologists 32 2. Geology Emerges as a Science: On the Other Side of the Pond 34 American Scientific Geological Developments 34 Louis Agassiz in the United States 35 James Dwight Dana 37 Sir John William Dawson 37 John Wesley Powell 40 Clarence King 43 Florence Bascom 44 3. Geologic Time: From an Early Geologic Time Scale 47 The Age of the Earth: Geologic Time 47 About the Time Scale of the Earth: Ordering of Events through Relative Age-D ating 48 Development of the Geologic Time Scale 52 Abraham Werner and an Early Geologic Time Scale 52 Expansion of the Time Scale of Geology 55 Periods of the Paleozoic Era 55 Periods of the Mesozoic Era 63 Periods of the Cenozoic Era 65 Geologic Eras 67 Measuring Time: The Final Frontier 67 viii Contents 4. Geologic Time: Measuring Time and the Nature of Deep Time 69 Quantifying Time: Numerical Dating 69 Radioactivity and Isotopes: History and Use in Geology 70 The Present Geologic Time Scale 74 Mapping the Geologic Time Scale 78 Deep Time: A New Orientation to Geologic Time 81 5. Plate Tectonics: History of the Revolution in Earth Sciences 82 How the Crust of the Earth Moves: Overview of Plate Tectonics 82 Setting the Stage for Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics 83 Eduard Suess and His Tectonics 85 Antarctic Exploration, the Terra Nova Expedition, and Plate Tectonics 88 Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift 92 Data for Continental Drift 96 Mechanisms for Continental Drift: Early Ideas 101 Post– World War II Exploration of the Ocean Floor: A Unified Theory of Plate Tectonics 102 6. Plate Tectonics: Oceans, Continents, Plates, and How They Interact 114 Plate Tectonics Theory 115 Divergent Plate Boundaries 118 Convergent Plate Boundaries 120 Transform Plate Boundaries 122 Hotspots and Diffuse Boundary Zones 124 Diffuse Boundaries 127 Unknown or Speculative Boundaries 128 Consequences of Plate Tectonics 129 Past and Present Tectonics 132 Tying It All Together 133 7. Life on the Earth: Evolution, Extinctions, and Biodiversity 137 Development and Change of Life on the Earth: Evolution and Natural Selection 137 Charles Darwin, the Journey of HMS Beagle, and Natural Selection 140 Fossils and Preservation of Ancient Life 145 The Historical “Bone Wars” of Marsh and Cope: Filling Out the Dinosaur Fossil Record 146 Genes, DNA, and Quantitative Biology 148 Toward a Unified Synthetic Theory of Evolution 150 Horse Fossils, Their Geologic History, and Change in Environmental Conditions 152 Evolution in Action 154 Extinction Events and Their Impact on Evolution 157 Mass Extinctions 157 Contents ix Biodiversity throughout the Geologic Record 160 Unifying Theories and the Future 161 8. Th e Biography of the Earth: The Precambrian Story 163 Hadean Eon, 4,600–4 ,000 Million Years Ago 165 Archean Eon, 4,000–2 ,500 Million Years Ago 170 Proterozoic Eon, 2,500–5 41 Million Years Ago 173 Snowball Earths and Emergence of More Complex Life 178 9. Th e Biography of the Earth: Paleozoic Era 181 Cambrian Period, 541–4 85.4 Million Years Ago 182 Ordovician Period, 485.4–4 43.8 Million Years Ago 187 Silurian Period, 443.8–4 19.2 Million Years Ago 190 Devonian Period, 419.2–3 58.9 Million Years Ago 190 Carboniferous Period, 358.9–2 98.9 Million Years Ago 193 Permian Period, 298.9–2 51.9 Million Years Ago 195 10. Th e Biography of the Earth: Mesozoic Era 200 Triassic Period, 251.9–2 01.3 Million Years Ago 201 Jurassic Period, 201.3–1 45.0 Million Years Ago 205 Cretaceous Period, 145.0–6 6.0 Million Years Ago 207 11. B iography of the Earth: Cenozoic Era 214 Paleogene Period, 66.0–2 3.03 Million Years Ago 215 Neogene Period, 23.03–2 .58 Million Years Ago 220 Quaternary Period, 2.58 Million Years Ago to Present 223 12. The Earth’s Impact on Life and Life’s Impact on the Earth 229 The Earth: Interconnected Systems 230 Population Matters 232 Geosphere– Human Interaction 234 Hydrosphere–H uman Interaction 237 Biosphere– Human Interaction 241 Atmosphere and Climate–H uman Interaction 243 Interfaces among All Spheres 244 Soils and Their Significance 245 Temperature, Weather, and Climate 247 The Dynamic Carbon Cycle 248 Song of the Earth and Implications 253 Looking Backward to Look Forward 254 Glossary 257 Notes 273 Bibliography 307 Index 337
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