Some Aviation Growth Events

9 Pages·2002·0.7 MB·English

by  Spearman, M. Lero

AIAA 2002-0172
Introduction
SOME AVIATION GROWTH EVENTS
Orville and Wilber Wright were credited with
M Leroy Spearman* achieving the first flight of aheavier-than-air,
NASA Langley Research Center powered, man-carrying airplane at Kitty Hawk,
Hampton, Virginia 23681 North Carolina, USA on December 17, 1903.
This event marked the beginning of a dramatic
Abstract history of aviation growth. The airplane has
changed from acuriosity to a vehicle of many
The growth of aviation since the first flight of uses that include transportation, exploration,
a heavier-than-air powered manned vehicle in recreation and warfare. The growth in aviation
1903 has been somewhat remarkable. Some of has occurred inmany countries around the world
the events that have influenced this growth are and has been fostered by the native talent of
reviewed inthis paper. This review will include individuals as well as by the exchange of
some events prior to World War I;the influence information between countries and by the import
of the war itself; the events during the post-war and export of hardware. Driving factors in this
years including the establishment of aeronautical growth have included the innate curiosity of
research laboratories; and the influence of World man, an inherent desire for adventure, the quest
War II which, among other things, introduced for economic benefits, and the feeling of need for
new technologies that included rocket and jet security and superiority.
propulsion and supersonic aerodynamics.
Discussion
The subsequent era of aeronautical research
and the attendant growth inaviation over the past The Beginnings. The Wright's achievement of
half century will be reviewed from the view manned, powered, controlled, heavier-than-air
point of the author who, since 1944, has been flight in 1903 was preceded by many years of
involved in the NACA/NASA aeronautical thinking, planning, and working. The Wright's
research effort at what isnow the Langley could also benefit from the works of several
Research Center inHampton, Virginia. The other's. One ofthe first to concentrate on the
review will discuss some of the research development of aheavier-than-air, fixed-wing
programs related to the development of some flying machine was Sir George Cayley of
experimental aircraft, the Century series of England. In 1853, Cayley made aglider in
fighter aircraft, multi-mission aircraft, advanced which it is said that his unwilling coachman
military aircraft and missiles, advanced civil made what was probably the first flight in a
aircraft, supersonic transports, spacecraft and manned, heavier-than-air craft. While Cayley
others was laying much of the foundation for modem
aircraft, he could not provide what he called a
prime mover - a suitable lightweight engine.
*Senior Technical Specialist Among other innovative glider designers was
Systems Analysis Branch Otto Lilienthal, a German, who, inthe 1890's
Associate Fellow, AIAA built and flew many successful hang-gliders.
Copyright (c) 2002 by the American Institute of Lilienthal was killed in 1896 when a wind gust
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. No copyright caused the glider on which he was flying to stall
is asserted in the United States under Title 17, and crash. Lilienthal did record his work so that
U.S. Code. The U.S. Government has aroyalty- others might benefit from his experience. One
free license to exercise all rights under the follower, Percy Pilcher in Scotland, constructed
copyright claimed herein for Governmental several promising gliders inthe late 1890's and
purposes. All other rights are reserved for the was working toward a powered machine when a
copyright owner. crash ended his career. In the United States, a
French-born American, Octave Chanute, became
interested in aeronautics and flight. He wrote
severjaolurnaalrticleosnthedevelopmoefnthte ofaerodynamaincsdleadtomeanosfstability,
flyingmachinaendin189t4hearticleasppeared controal,ndbalancTeh.edevelopmoefntht e
inbookformentitlePdrogreisnsFlying lightweigihntternaclombustiroenciprocating
MachineCsh.anuatendhisassociatdeidsdesign, enginceompletethdeapproatcohmannefldight.
buildandflysevermalodifievdersionosfthe Thereciprocatienngginiesstillinusetodayand
Lilienthal-tygpleiderI.naboutthesampeeriod wasessentiatlhlyeonlytypeofairplaneengine
oftimeinthelate1800a'snotheArmerican formorethan40yearbseforteheturbojeetngine
scientisSt,amuPelierpoiLnatnglebyecame wasperfected.
convincethdatpowerefldightwasachievable.
Langledyidnotexperimewnitthglidingflight
The Concept Spreads. A French artillery
butwithmodeplsowerewdithrubbebrandast
commander, Captain Ferdinand Ferber became
firstandthenwithsteamengineIsn.November
interested in flying because of the exploits of
1896h,issteam-poweAreerdodromNeo.6
Lilienthal and Chanute. In corresponding with
successfudlleymonstraptoewderefldightwhen
Chanute, Ferber learned about the Wright's and
itflewforthree-quartoefrasmilebeforreunning
began to correspond with them. Through his
outoffuel.TheWrighbtrothewrsereawaroef
writings and lectures, Ferber had a significant
Langleye'sxperimenatnsdwroteformore
influence onthe advancement of flight in France.
informatioonnhisworkT. heWrighbtrothers
One early flyer in France was Brazilian-born
alsowrotetoChanuatenddescribesodmeof
Alberto Santos-Dumont who built and flew
theirexperimetnothsim.Thiswasthebeginning
gasoline-powered airships in the late 1800's,
ofafriendshdipuringwhichChanupterovided
turned to gliders and then to powered airplanes.
assistanacnedencouragemtoetnhteWright's.
He earned the credit for making the first
TheWright'sstudieaslsoincludetdheworkof
powered, manned aircraft flight in France in
Lilienthal.
1906. The Wright's finally demonstrated their
airplane to the U.S Army and sold the first
Whileglidingflightdemonstramteadnned,
airplane to the Army in 1908. The Wright's also
heavier-thanf-liagihrta, satisfactoernyginteo demonstrated inFrance to an enthusiastic
providpeowerefldighwt asneededS.omeearly audience. The first heavier-than-air machine to
attempftosrpowerefldightweremaduesing
fly in England, the Army Aeroplane No. 1,flew
steamenginetosdrivearotororpropellbeurt
inOctober 1908. The machine, similar to the
noneweresuccessifnualchievinsgustained,
Wright design, was created by Samuel Cody, an
controllabflleight.Langledyidproceefdromhis American-born naturalized Briton. The first
powerefldightsuccetsosanattemptotflya
heavier-than-air flight in Germany was a 1908
mannevdersioonftheAerodromHee.was
demonstration by J.C.H. Ellehammer, a Danish
dissatisfiwedithsteampowebrecausoefthelow
visitor. The German's were intrigued with the
power-to-werigahtitoandhadchangetodan
rigid airships being built by Count von Zepplin
internaclombustigoansolineenginseimilatro
and paid little attention to the airplane. In an
thatbeingusedonearlyautomobilAesn.attempt
effort to catch up, however, the German's were
wasmadeonOct.71,90t3oachievmeanned- soon to borrow from France and from other's.
powered-fligwhitththeAerodrombuetit
Germany capitalized onthe talent of Anthony
crasheimdmediatedluyetoaproblemattributed
Fokker, a Dutchman who came to Germany to
tothecatapulaltuncmhechanisAmn.other
study engineering. In Russia, ayoung designer,
attempwtasmadteoflythemanned-powered
Igor Sikorsky, was experimenting unsuccessfully
AerodromoenDec8.,1903butagainacrash
with helicopters. He then turned his attention to
attributetodthecatapulaltuncohccurreNdi.ne
large, fixed-wing airplanes and produced what
dayslateronDec1.7,1903O,rvilleWright
would become a forerunner of large bombers and
successfualclyhievepdowerefldighat tKitty
commercial airplanes. Latter Sikorsky left Russia
HawkN,C.TheWrighth'sadalsoturnetdothe and came to the United States where he was to
gasoline-fueinletedrnaclombustieonnginaend
successfully produce helicopters. Following the
hadbuilttheirownenginbeaseodnthetype
initial success of the Wright Brother's, little
beingdevelopfeodrautomobiles.
attention was given to the airplane inthe United
States. Another U.S. designer, Glenn Curtiss,
Manned-powered-wflaigsnhotwareality.
was becoming well known and a Curtiss airplane
Man'sinnatceuriosithyadsparkethdedesirteo
was the second airplane to be bought by the U.S.
fly.Glidingflighthaddemonstrattheedtheory
Army in 1911.
2 2
The Airplane at War. The idea that an airplane In the final days of World War I, Russia, in
might be used inwarfare was adopted in the the midst of arevolution was also accumulating
early 1900's by European countries where war foreign aircraft and engines from various sources
was imminent. The French, the most air-minded including French, German, British, Italian and
in Europe, had 254 airplanes inthe Army by Dutch. Soon after the war, the Russians also
1912. Two prominent French designers's at the obtained the rights to build the U.S. Liberty
time were Louis Bechereau and Edouard engine. These acquisitions were of great value to
Nieuport. Bechereau designed the Deperdussin the newly formed Soviet Union inestablishing a
racer in 1913 that was the first airplane to have a base in aviation technology.
monocoque fuselage. Later he designed the Spad
fighter of World War I fame. Nieuport was to Between World War Iand II. During the
become the designer of the famous Nieuport 1920's and 1930's many nations were developing
fighters of World War I. The British, after indigenous airplane types for both military and
acquiring Army Aeroplane No. 1,were slow in civil use. Among the producers inthe U.S. were
getting into military aviation. At the urging of Curtiss, Boeing, Douglas, Martin, Lockheed,
such politicians as Winston Churchill, the Royal Keystone, North American, Consolidated, Ryan,
Flying Corps was established in April 1912. Grumman, Bell, Vultee, Republic, Northrop,
Some Among the British designers of the era Vought, Sikorsky, Berliner-Joyce, Brewster,
where A.V. Roe, Geoffrey de Haviland, and Stearman, Beech, Cessna, Fairchild, Seversky -
T.O.M. Sopwith, each of who made important inGreat Britian producers included DeHaviland,
contributions to British airpower. In Germany Bristol, Avro, Handley-Page, Fairey, Hawker,
the efforts of Fokker lead to the monoplane, Supermarine, Armstrong-Whitworth, Blackburn,
biplane, and triplane fighter airplanes of World Westland, Saunders-Roe, Gloster, Boulton-Paul,
War I fame. The U.S. showed less interest in Short, Bristol -in France producers included
developing air power than did the European Leo, Bregnet, Dewoitine, Farman, Amiot, Potez,
nations since the threat of war was less ominous. Loire, Bloch, Morane-Saulner, Latecoere,
However, some interesting developments did Nieuport, Hanriot - inGermany producers
take place. The Army produced the world's first included Focke-Wulf, Heinkel, Dornier, Arado,
bombsight and conducted live bombing tests Henschel, Junkers, Messerschmitt, Fieseler,
from a Wright Flyer in 1911. In the winter of Blohm and Voss -in Italy producers included
1910-1911, the U.S. Navy conducted the first Caproni, Savoia-Marchetti, Fiat, Breda, CANT,
shipboard takeoff and landing with aCurtiss Macchi, Piaggio -in Japan producers included
airplane. Curtiss airplanes were also used for Mitsubishi, Kawaski, Nakajima, Aichi, Showa,
catapult launch testing. In 1911, Curtiss Kawanishi, Hiro - inthe Netherlands producers
produced a practical seaplane. With wheels included Fokker, Koolhoven -in the Soviet
attached to the seaplane, Curtiss also Union producers included Antonov, Beriev,
demonstrated the world's first amphibian. Curtiss Ilyushin, Lavochkin, Lisunov, Guryevich,
went on to build a watertight fuselage and Mikoyan, Myasishchyev, Petlyakov, Polikarpov,
produced the world's first flying boat. Sukhoi, Tupelov, Mil, Yakovlev, Bratukhin,
Kamov, Kalinin.
The U.S. was slow inbuilding airpower. When
war broke out in Europe in August 1914 the U.S. Some technology transfer between nations
had atotal of 23 airplanes for military use. In occurred inthe 1920's and 1930's through the
contrast, France had 1400, Germany had 1000, interchange of hardware. Junkers of Germany
Russia had 800 and England had 400. By 1915, operated aplant in the Soviet Union from 1923
the U.S. was producing the Curtiss JN-4 Jenny to 1927 as a way for Germany to overcome some
that was used primarily as atrainer. Some of the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of
European airplanes were also manufactured in Versailles and as away for the USSR to
the U.S. as an aid to the war effort and this accelerate their aircraft technology in areas such
provided valuable experience to American as the use of duralumin in the design and
industry. In the World War I era, the U.S construction ofmetal, cantilever wings. Some
acquired several European airplanes including European designed airplanes found aplace in the
those of Spad, Nieuport, Sopwith, deHaviland, growth of U.S. aviation - for example, the Dutch
and Breguet. American airplanes, inaddition to Fokker T-2, asingle-engine, cantilevered high-
the Curtiss Jenny, included those of Thomas- wing monoplane was used by the Army Air
Morse, Packard-Le Pere, Standard, and Martin. Service and made the first non-stop flight across
3 3
the U.S. in 1923. The Fokker C-2 trimotor single-place aircraft referred to as the "sky
transport, also used by the Army Air Service, flivver". At least three versions of the flivver
was used by Admiral Byrd in a flight over the were built and flown but it never reached the
North Pole in 1926 and by the Army inthe first public. Other early civil transports included the
California to Hawaii flight in 1927. The Fokker Boeing Model 80-trimotor biplane and the
trimotor also saw early airline service in the U.S. Curtiss Condor twin-engine biplane. In the
preceding the Ford Trimotor. 1930's some transports using more advanced
technology began to appear. One of the these
Thus a considerable amount of aviation was the Boeing Monomail which first flew in
technology was transferred between nations in 1930. The Monomail was a single-engine design
the 1920's and 1930's through the interchange of that had asmooth, low, cantilever, all-metal
hardware. Another source of aeronautical monoplane wing, a cowled engine and a
technical information was beginning to become retractable landing gear. This was followed in
prominent during the 1920's. This was the 1933 by the Boeing 247, a twin-engine design
creation of aeronautical research laboratories by with cowled supercharged engines, hydraulically
many governments for the purpose of achieving controlled variable-pitch propellers, a low all-
preeminence inaviation. In the United Stares, metal cantilever monoplane wing and a
the National Advisory Committee for retractable gear. Also in 1933, Douglas produced
Aeronautics (NACA) was created by an act of the DC-1 that was followed bythe DC-2 and
Congress in 1915 and the first NACA wind DC-3. These were all-metal designs with twin-
tunnel was running at Langley Field, Virginia in cowled engines, a low cantilever monoplane
June 1920. In Russia, the Central Aero- wing, retractable gear, and variable-pitch
Hydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) was propellers. The DC-3 was faster than the 247
established in December 1918. In Great Britain, and carried more passengers and thus was able to
the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) was capture most of the domestic air transport market
begun and, in France, aresearch center was by 1940.
started at Villacoublay. The NACA was quite
prolific inthe time period between World War's A notable transfer of technology occurred in
II and I inproducing reports of investigations in the mid 1930's when the U.S. permitted Soviet
many areas of aeronautical research. Among the Union technicians to visit the Douglas Aircraft
results reported were those related to airfoil Company to examine the revolutionary DC-3
sections; drag cleanup; high lift devices; the airplane. Subsequently, manufacturing rights
NACA cowling; the engine supercharger; were granted to the USSR where the airplane
stressed-skin construction; cantilevered wings; was produced under the direction of B.P.Lisunov
retractable landing gear; enclosed cockpit; as the Li-2. The Li-2 was soon placed inmilitary
propellers; stability and control; boundary layers; and civil service where it remained until well
dynamic stability; flying qualities and so on. into the 1940's.
These developments were directed toward
increased efficiency; increased speed; increased In the 1930's, several clean streamlined
safety and comfort; increased utility and airplanes were produced inthe belief that there
productivity. was amarket for a small, high-speed transport.
Included inthis category were the Lockheed
Civil aircraft development in the U.S. was Vega and Orion, Northrop Alpha and Gamma,
delayed by World War I. Some airplanes used in Vultee V-1A, and the Lockheedl0/14/18 family.
early airline service were open cockpit, single-
engine biplanes such as the Douglas M-2 and the Another event inthe 1930-1940 time period
Boeing Model 40. Among the first of the was the flying-boat activity. These relatively
dedicated airliners was the Ford 2-AT, single- large aircraft were primarily to support the
engine, allmetal, high-wing monoplane with an oceanic routes of Pan American Airways. They
enclosed cabin. This was followed by the Ford included the Sikorsky S-38, S-40, S-42, Martin
4-AT, all-metal, tri-motor with an enclosed cabin M-130 and Boeing 314. The flying boat concept
for 11passengers (the author of this paper made was later replaced by large, new land-based
his first flight on a Ford Trimotor at the age of airplanes.
16.) Before the trimotor was produced, HeW
Ford's interest in aviation was noted in the Over 800 civil aircraft types were certified by
development of asmall, 350-pound, roadable, the CAA in the U.S. from the mid 1920'5 to the
4 4
mid 1950's. Among these were airplanes from outdated Douglas B-18's, Curtiss P-36's, and
Aeronca, Arrow, Beech, Bellanca, Bird, Boeing, Northrop A-17's. By contrast, the British had
Budd, Buhl, Cessna, Culver, Curtiss, Douglas, about 2000 first-line airplanes. French air power
Erco, Fairchild, Fleet, Fokker, Ford, Gee-Bee, had deteriorated badly following World War I
Great Lakes, Howard, Inland, Kellett. Kinner, and the French had adopted ahomeland defense
Laird, Lockheed, Loening, Luscombe, Martin, policy to prohibit invasion that was based on
Monocoupe, Mooney, Northrop, Piper, Pitcairn, heavily fortified fixed ground bases such as the
Porterfield, Rearwin, Republic, Ryan, Sikorsky, Maginot Line. In Germany, where a military
Spartan, Stearman, Stinson, Swallow, Taylor, buildup had been underway, the Luftwaffe had at
Travel Air, Verville, Waco and many others. least 4000 essentially new airplanes. While the
Western world was debating over the German
Military aircraft of various types were under buildup, another unusually large buildup was
development in the U.S. between World War I going on almost unnoticed on the small islands
and II. Biplanes were prevalent in the1920's as of Japan. The Japanese Air Force had about 2100
the U.S. was following World War I designs. airplanes in 1937 and Japan was building two
Army aircraft of that period included the aircraft carriers yearly inthe late 1930's. The
Consolidated primary trainers, the Curtiss PW-8 German might was unleashed in Europe in
Hawk family, Boeing PW-9, Martin MB-2, the September 1939 and the Japanese attacked the
Keystone bombers, Curtiss Condor, Curtiss O-1 U.S. in December 1941.
and A-3, Douglas 0-2, 0-25 and 0-38. The
Boeing Company, in a private venture, began the The U.S. airpower continued to grow in the
development of anew biplane fighter in 1928 by late 1930's and early 1940's. Among the
changing from the liquid-cooled engine of the airplanes that appeared were the Seversky P-35,
PW-9 to an air-cooled radial engine. The the Curtiss P-36 and P-40, the Boeing B-17 and
airplane was purchased by the U.S. Navy as the B-29, the Consolidated B-24, the North
F4B-1 shipboard fighter. Based onenthusiastic American B-25, the Douglas A-20, the Douglas
Navy reports, the Army tested the airplane and A-26, the Martin B-26, the Bell P-39, the
bought it as the first of a long line of P-12's. Lockheed P-38, the Republic P-47, Northrop P-
61, and the North American P-51. American
Monoplane designs became more prevalent in industry accelerated to meet the wartime
the 1930's with the expectation that the demands. A prewar rate of 2000 airplanes per
performance would exceed that for biplanes. An year was up to 4000 airplanes per month by
early Boeing design designated XP-9 had ahigh, 1943. In the years from 1940 to 1945, the Air
body-mounted, strut-braced wing. The XP-9 had Forces accepted almost 230,000 airplanes
an all-metal structure and a semi-monocoque
fuselage that was to set the pace for future The rapid growth inaviation was paced by a
designs. The wing location limited the pilot's growing need for an expansion of the research
visibility and the airplane was not produced. The effort. The NACA laboratory at Langley Field
next monoplane effort by Boeing was the XP-15 was being stretched to the limit bythe late
which was essentially a P-12 with the lower 1930's. To aid inexpanding the research effort,
wing removed. The XP-15 was never produced. new NACA research centers were established in
The next Boeing monoplane design was the California (Ames in 1939) and in Ohio (Lewis-
P-26, which had a wire-braced low wing, an now Glenn in1940). During the World War II
open cockpit and a fixed gear. The P-26 was years, the workload changed and increased.
accepted and was a front-line fighter until the Attention was turned to the short-term problems
early 1940's. The follow-on fighter's to replace of airplanes already in production as well as to
the P-26 were the SeverskyP-35 and the Curtiss exploring new fields of knowledge for those
P-40. Some monoplane observation airplanes airplanes still under design. During the years
produced by Douglas were the 0-43 and 0-46. from 1941 to 1944, the NACA laboratories
New monoplane bombers that appeared were the worked on 115 different airplane types with
Boeing B-9 and the Martin B-10. spectacular results. Fighter speed, altitude, and
Once again inthe 20th century, warfare was to maneuverability were increased; buffet, stall and
play a part in the growth of aviation. In 1939, the spin problems were cured; bomber range and
United States had an air strength of about 1700 payload was increased. Many outstanding
airplanes of which only about 800 could be wartime airplanes were based on fundamentals
considered first- line. These were primarily
5 5
developbeydNACA-suchasairfoisl ections;
jet engine technology was acquired from the
coolinmgethodhsi;ghliftdeviceasndsoon.
British. The Soviets produced two British jet
Manyofthewartimdeevelopmewnetsrealsoto
engines under license. Thus the early Soviet jet
beusedincommercaiairlplanes.
aircraft were powered by German and British
engines.
TheAmericadnesigneadndbuiltairplaneosf
WorldWarIIweregenerapllyroduceind
Further growth in commercial transports
respontsoeArmyrequiremenOtsn.eexception,
began inthe late 1930's and continued into the
howevewr,astheNorthAmericaPn-51T.his
1950's after an interruption caused by World
airplanceameabouintrespontsoeaBritish
War II. Douglas had begun the development of
searcfhorafightearirplanteoreplenisthhe
the DC-4, a4-engine enlarged version ofthe
dwindlinRgoyaAl irForcefightesrtrengtOh.ne
DC-3. The airplane entered military service as
oftheAmericacnompaniaepsproachbeydthe
the C-54. Lockheed developed the 4-engine
BritishN,orthAmericaAnviationIn,c.,
Constellation that also saw military service.
undertoothkedesigonftheNA-73airplantehat
Other civil derivatives of the military were the
wasproduceind117daysT.heairplanueseda
Boeing 307 Stratoliner 4-engine transport
newlydevelopNedACAlaminaflrowlow-drag
developed from the B-17 bomber and utilizing,
wingsectioanndaradiatoinrgeniously
for the first time, apressurized fuselage. Boeing
positionefodrlowdragT. heairplanweasatfirst
also developed the 377 Stratocruiser a 4-engine
ignorebdytheU.SA. rmybutwaslatetrobe
transport derived from the B-29 and B-50
testeda,ccepteadn,dprocureadnda,stheP-51 bombers. The 377 had atwin-lobe 2-level cabin.
Mustanbge,camoeneoftheoutstandifnigghters
ofitsdayF. irsptowerewdithaU.SA. llison
Following the war, in 1945, a team of American
engineth,eairplanweasequippebdytheBritish
scientists visited Europe to survey the state of
withaRolls-RoyMceerlinenginew,hich
technology related to aviation. Soon large
resulteindsubstantiinaclreasiensspeerda,nge,
quantities of scientific information was flowing
andaltitude.
into the U.S. In addition, a number of scientists
and technicians from Germany and Italy came to
Anothetyrpeoftechnolotgryansfearccelerated
work in the U.S. Probably the most impressive
thegrowtohfaviatioinntheSovieUtnion.
new technology had to do with high-speed
UndetrheLend-LeapsreogramtheSoviets
aerodynamics and included data onjet and
receiveodver18,00a0irplane-sincludintghe
rocket propulsion and onairframe shaping. Jet
BellP-39AiracobraandCurtisPs-40Tomahawk
propulsion for airplanes was under development
fromtheU.Sa.swellassomBeritishSpitfires
inGermany (von Ohain) and in Great Britain
andHurricaneInsa.dditionth,eSoviertseceived
(Whittle) in the 1930's and 1940's. The German's
machintoeolsandfactorieinscludinagn
were flying jet-propelled airplanes before the end
aluminurmollingmill;2.25milliontonsofsteel;
of the war (He-178, Me-262) and the British
400,00to0nsofcoppear;nd250,00to0nsof
twinjet Gloster Meteor was in service bythe end
aluminu(mequatol2yearosfproductioant
of the summer in 1944. The U.S. began the
1945Sovierat tes)A.llofthesematerials
secret development of ajet airplane in 1941
permittethdeSoviettoschangferomwoodetno
using an American version of the Whittle engine.
metaalirplanelasteinthewar.
The airplane, the Bell P-59 Airacomet first flew
inOctober 1942.
Post World War II. - Much transfer of aviation
technology followed the end of World War II. The increase in airspeed made possible by the
The Soviet Union, for example, began to study jet engine lead to studies of airplane shapes with
captured and interned airplanes of both friend reduced drag. One method was through the use
and foe. One example was the exploitation of an of wing sweep that would delay the onset of
American Boeing B-29, three of which had made compressible flow. Wing sweep had been
forced landings inthe Far East in 1944. A thoroughly studied in Germany. Basic airfoil
Tupolev design team dismantled the B-29 and theory for swept and yawed wings by Dr.
copied the components and in 1947 the Soviet Adolph Betz was published in 1935. Based on
copy, designated the Tu-4 (NATO Bull), was the work of Betz, a low-speed wind-tunnel study
shown in the Tushino Air Show. The Soviets of the aerodynamic characteristics of swept and
acquired much in the way of airplane design and yawed wings of various planforms was
jet engine technology from the Germans. More undertaken at NACA Langley in 1944 -a study
6 6
to which the author of this paper was assigned. supersonic transport; the Navy combat air patrol
This testing included planforms that were swept (CAP); the Tactical Air Command (TAC) low
back, swept forward, skewed, M-shaped, altitude penetration; and the multipurpose
triangular, rectangular and trapezoidal. commonality airplane directed by Secretary
Some flight results for sweptback wings were Robert McNamara for the Navy and the Air
also obtained at NACA-Langley in 1947 using Force -the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX)
the Bell L-39 research airplane. The L-39 was a which lead to the F-111. While the fundamental
Bell P-63 modified to accommodate aswept purpose of developing a multi-service airplane
wing. The use of wing sweep inmany countries for the Air Force and the Navy was not
was to have apronounced effect onthe design of successful in the TFX program, there have been
aircraft for years to come. The first operational other cases where commonality was achieved.
swept-wing fighter airplane inthe U.S. was the Examples are the Boeing F4B Navy fighter and
North American P-86 that flew in October 1947. P-12 Army fighter; the McDonnell F4H Navy
The airplane began its life in 1944 as the fighter that was later adopted by the Air Force as
straight-wing Navy jet XFJ-1 Fury. As the the F4.
swept wing data became available, the design
evolved to the 35 degree swept wing. The research airplane program that was begun
inthe late 1940's proved tobe an effective way
Further growth incivil transports occurred to advance the growth of aviation insofar as
following the war with the application ofjet actual flight hardware is concerned. Before the
propulsion and wing sweep. The Boeing 707, the advent of transonic wind tunnels. Early testing in
first jet transport inthe U.S., flew in 1954. The the transonic range was sometimes done with
4-jet, swept-wing design was a private venture of free-flight rocket models; with the wing-flow
the Boeing company based on the B-47 and B-52 technique; and with the transonic-bump
swept-wing, jet bombers. The Douglas DC-8 technique. Early transonic data were obtained for
was the second U.S. 4-jet swept wing transport. what was to become the X-1 airplane by testing a
Convair also produced a 4-jet swept wing half-model mounted on a curved bump on the
transport but production was limited because floor ofthe Langley High-Speed 7-by- 10-Ft.
Boeing and Douglas took the market. wind tunnel. When new hypersonic, supersonic
and transonic tunnels became available,
Another approach to low-drag wings was the experimental data was obtained to accelerate the
use of delta shaped planforms with a highly flight research program as well as the
swept leading edge and a low thickness ratio. development of various types of missiles, launch
Research on delta wing designs had been done in vehicles and spacecraft.
Germany by Lippisch. Lippisch came to the U.S.
after the war and, working with the Air Force Advances inthe understanding of supersonic
and Convair, aided in the design of the tailless aerodynamics was underway in the 1950's with
delta airplane XF-92A which, in turn, lead to the the era of the 'Century Series' airplanes. The
Convair F-102, F-106 and B-58 delta wing distribution of volume and weight with most
airplanes. Many delta wing designs have been high-speed jet designs was such that problems of
developed in many other countries. inertia coupling and longitudinal and directional
stability and control were encountered. The
Further studies of the use of wing sweep lead attainment of low drag was also a concern.
to the concept of variable sweep to combine the These concerns lead to the development of the
low-speed advantages of low-sweep with the area rule for drag improvement and various tail
high-speed advantages of high sweep into one arrangements for stability and control
airframe. The concept lead tothe development improvements.
of the Bell X-5 variable sweep research airplane.
Further impetus for variable sweep research The development of aircraft after World War II
came in the mid 1950's when the British designer proceeded at arapid rate. New missions were
Barnes Wallis shared his concept of a variable - developed that required new aircraft types. At
sweep airplane, the Swallow, with John Stack of the same time, new types of aircraft were
NACA-Langley. This lead to a series ofwind developed that suggested new missions. The
tunnel studies of the use of variable sweep on advent of the high-speed computer has changed
transports, fighters and bombers. Among the the design and analysis cycles and, when
purposes envisioned were for the commercial properly used in conjunction with experimental
7 7
techniquethse,developmoefnatviatiosnystems wasfirstmasterebduttheinventioonfa
shoulbdecommeoreaccurate. lightweigehntginaendpropellesrystemiswhat
Inthelate1950a'sndearly1960'tsh,equest ittooktoreallygetmanoffthegroundS.ince
forstillfurtheinrcreasiensproductiviftoyrcivil thatevenotccurreindDecemb1e9r03a,viation
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programonthesupersoncoicmmercaiairl aviatiotnechnologAyv.erysignificaenvtent
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wascreateadndtheresearccohntinueAdn. highspeeadircraftJ.etpropulsiocnouplewdith
industrcyompetititoondeveloapSSTwaswon improveddesigmnethodasndwithimproved
byBoeing/GenEerleacltriicn1966T.heBoeing constructitoenchniquheasveprovideadircraft
desigwnasplaguewdithproblemasndthrougah withcapabilititehsatfarexceewdhamt ighhtave
hosotftechnicaelc,onomiceaclo, logicaanl,d beenexpecteadtthetimeoftheWrighbtrothers
politicacloncernths,eU.SS. STprogramwas flightin1903A.ndthefutureo,fcoursies,yetto
cancelleindMarch1971. unfold.
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