Science in Europe, 1500-1800 : a primary sources reader

298 Pages·2002·7.86 MB·English

by  Malcolm Oster

Contents
Dramatis Personae x
Acknowledgements xiv
Preface xvii
1 Europe’s Awakening 1
1.1 Plato, Timaeus 1
1.2 Aristotle, (a) Physics, (b) On the Heavens 8
1.3 Lucretius, On the Nature of the Universe 15
1.4 Galen, On Anatomical Procedure 20
1.5 Galen, On the Natural Faculties 23
1.6 Sacrobosco, The Sphere 24
2 Copernicus and his Revolution 27
2.1 Copernicus, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 1543 27
(a) Dedication 27
(b) Foreword by Andreas Osiander 28
(c) Letter of Nicholas Schönberg, 1536 29
(d) Preface to the Pope 29
(e) Introduction to Book One 33
2.2 G. J. Rheticus, Holy Scripture and the Motion
of the Earth [1540] 35
2.3 Andreas Vesalius, Preface, On the Fabric of the
Human Body, 1543 39
3 The Spread of Copernicanism in Northern Europe 45
3.1 Robert Recorde, The Castle of Knowledge, 1556 45
3.2 Edward Wright, ‘Laudatory Address’, in William
Gilbert, De Magnete, 1600 48
v
vi Contents
3.3 Tycho Brahe, De disciplinis mathematicis
oratio, 1574 52
3.4 Johannes Kepler, Astronomia Nova, 1609 54
3.5 Johannes Kepler, Harmonices Mundi (The Harmonies of
the World), 1619 56
3.6 John Wilkins, A Discourse Concerning a
New Planet, 1640 62
4 Crisis in Italy 66
4.1 (a) Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina [1615], 1636 66
(b) Cardinal Bellarmine, letter to Paolo Foscarini,
12 April 1615 71
4.2 Galileo, The Assayer, 1623 73
4.3 MS G3 in the Archive of the Sacred Congregation
for the Doctrine of the Faith, ser. AD EE [1624?] 75
4.4 Galileo, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican, 1632 77
4.5 Tommasso Campanella, Civitas Solis (City of
the Sun), 1623 82
5 Iberian Science: Navigation, Empire and
Counter-Reformation 86
5.1 Garcia d’Orta, Colloquies on the Simples and
Drugs of India, 1563 86
5.2 Nicolás Monardes, La Historia Medicinal de las
cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales
que sirven en Medicina, Seville, 1565–74 89
5.3 Diego de Zúñiga, In Job commentaria, Toledo, 1584 90
5.4 Diego de Zúñiga, Philosophia prima pars, Toledo, 1597 91
5.5 Gaspar de Quiroga, Index et Catalogus Librorum
prohibitorum, Madrid, 1583 92
6 Science from the Earth in Central Europe 93
6.1 Ulrich Rülein von Calw, ‘On the Origin
of Metals’, in Ein nützlic Bergbüchlein [1500] 93
6.2 Cornelius Agrippa, De Occulta Philosophia [1510], 1531 94
6.3 Georgius Agricola, ‘On the Origin of Metals’,
in De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum, 1546 96
6.4 Georgius Agricola, ‘On the Knowledge of
the Miner’, Book I of De Re Metallica, 1556 96
6.5 Georgius Agricola, ‘On Assaying’, Book VII of
De Re Metallica, 1556 97
6.6 Paracelsus, ‘The Physician’s Remedies’
[1520s–1530s] 99
Contents vii
6.7 Paracelsus, ‘Alchemy, Art of Transformation’
[1520s–1530s] 100
6.8 Paracelsus, (a) ‘Seven Defensiones’ [1538],
(b) ‘On the Miners’ Sickness’ [1533–4] 101
6.9 Oswald Croll, De signaturis internis rerum, 1608 109
7 French Science in the Seventeenth Century 112
7.1 René Descartes 112
(a) The World [1629–33], 1664 112
(b) Treatise on Man [1629–33], 1664 115
(c) Discourse on Method, 1637 120
(d) Principles of Philosophy, 1644 123
7.2 Blaise Pascal, Story of the Great Experiment on the
Equilibrium of Fluids, 1648 133
8 Science in Seventeenth-Century England 136
8.1 William Gilbert, De Magnete, 1600 136
8.2 William Harvey, De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, 1628 139
8.3 Francis Bacon 142
(a) Epistle Dedicatory 142
(b) Preface to The New Organon, 1620 143
(c) Aphorisms 144
8.4 Robert Hooke, Preface, Micrographia, 1665 149
8.5 Robert Boyle, Some Considerations Touching the Usefulnesse
of Experimental Natural Philosophy,
The Second Tome, 1671 153
8.6 Robert Boyle, Of the Excellency and Grounds of the
Corpuscular Philosophy, 1674 157
8.7 Robert Boyle, ‘Dialogue on the Transmutation
and Melioration of Metals’ [mid- to late 1670s] 159
8.8 Isaac Newton, Remarks on an alchemical treatise,
‘Manna’ [1675] 162
8.9 Isaac Newton, Preface, Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy, 1687 163
8.10 Isaac Newton, Opticks, 1704 (1730 edn) 168
9 Scientific Academies across Europe 173
9.1 [Lorenzo Magalotti], Introduction to the Saggi of the
Accademia del Cimento, 1667 173
9.2 Thomas Sprat, History of the Royal
Society, 1667 177
(a) ‘On the History of the Royal Society: A Model of
Their Whole Design’ 177
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(b) ‘On the History of the Royal
Society: Their Course of Inquiry’ 179
9.3 Letter from H. Oldenburg to A. Auzout, 24 May 1666 183
10 The Reception of Newtonianism across Europe 184
10.1 Richard Bentley, A Confutation of Atheism
from the Origin and Frame of the World, 1693 184
10.2 Letter from Isaac Newton to Richard Bentley,
11 February [1693], 1756 189
10.3 John Ray, The Wisdom of God Manifested in the
Works of Creation, 1691 190
10.4 Roger Cotes, Preface to the 2nd edition of the
Principia, 1713 194
10.5 Extracts from letters relating to the Leibniz–
Clarke correspondence 198
(a) Leibniz to Conti, November–December 1715 198
(b) Newton to Conti, 26 February 1716 200
(c) Leibniz to Conti, 9 April 1716 200
(d) Leibniz to Wolff, 23 December 1715 201
10.6 W. J. ’sGravesande, Mathematical Elements of
Natural Philosophy, 1726 201
11 Science in the Scottish Enlightenment 205
11.1 James Hutton, Abstract of a dissertation read
in the Royal Society of Edinburgh...concerning the
system of the earth, its duration and stability, 1785 205
11.2 James Hutton, Theory of the Earth, 1795 209
11.3 Joseph Black, ‘Experiments upon Magnesia Alba,
Quicklime and some other Alkaline Substances’,
Essays and Observations, Physical and Literary, 1756 212
11.4 Adam Smith, Essays on Philosophical Subjects, 1795 217
12 Science on the Fringe of Europe: Eighteenth-Century
Sweden 220
12.1 Carl Linnaeus, Dedication and Preface, Species
Plantarum, 1753 220
12.2 C. W. Scheele, Chemical Investigations on Air
and Fire, 1777 224
12.3 E. D. Clarke, Travels in Various Parts of Europe, Asia
and Africa, 1824 227
13 Science in Orthodox Europe 229
13.1 L. Euler, Letters to a German Princess, 1795 229
Contents ix
13.2 S. P. Krasheninnikov, The History of
Kamtschatka, 1764 232
13.3 Mikhail Lomonosov, The Appearance of Venus
on the Sun, Observed at the St. Petersburg Academy
of Sciences on the 16th Day of May in the Year 1761 236
14 Establishing Science in Eighteenth-Century Europe 241
14.1 Robert Jameson, ‘On the Supposed Existence
of Mechanical Deposits and Petrefactions in
the Primitive Mountains...’, 1802 241
15 The Chemical Revolution 250
15.1 Stephen Hales, Vegetable Staticks, 1727 250
15.2 Joseph Priestley, Experiments and Observations
on Different Kinds of Air, 1775 253
15.3 Joseph Priestley, Autobiography of Joseph Priestley:
Memoirs Written by Himself, 1806 256
15.4 Antoine Lavoisier, Elements of Chemistry, 1789 261
16 Conclusions 265
16.1 F. Voltaire, Letters Concerning the English
Nation, 1734 265
16.2 Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle, Conversations on the
Plurality of Worlds, 1686, 1687 (‘The Sixth Evening’) 269
16.3 Frederick II, ‘Discourse on the Usefulness
of the Arts and Sciences in a State’,
27 January 1772 272
Index 275
Dramatis Personae
Chapter 1: Europe’s Awakening
1.1 Plato (427–347 BC), Greek philosopher
1.2 Aristotle (384–322 BC), Greek philosopher
1.3 Lucretius (c.95–55 BC), Roman philosopher
1.4, 1.5 Galen (AD 129–c.200), Greek physician and anatomist
1.6 Johannes de Sacrobosco (fl. 1230), Irish mathematician
Chapter 2: Copernicus and his Revolution
2.1 (a) (d) (e) Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543), Polish
astronomer and mathematician
2.1 (b) Andreas Osiander (1498–1552), German astronomer and theologian
2.1 (c) Nicholas Schönberg
2.2 Georgius Rheticus (1514–1574), German mathematician
2.3 Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), Flemish physician and anatomist
Chapter 3: The Spread of Copernicanism in Northern Europe
3.1 Robert Recorde (1510–1558), English mathematical practitioner
and physician
3.2 Edward Wright (1558–1615), English mathematical practitioner
3.3 Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), Danish astronomer
3.4, 3.5 Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), German astronomer and
mathematician
3.6 John Wilkins (1614–1672), English mathematician and cleric
Chapter 4: Crisis in Italy
4.1 (a), 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), Italian
mathematician and natural philosopher
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Dramatis Personae xi
4.1 (b) Roberto Bellarmine (1542–1621), Jesuit philosopher
and theologian
4.5 Tommasso Campanella (1568–1639), Italian Dominican
Chapter 5: Iberian Science: Navigation, Empire and
Counter-Reformation
5.1 Garcia d’Orta (c.1501–1568), Portuguese physician
5.2 Nicolás Monardes (c.1493–1588), Spanish physician
5.3, 5.4 Diego de Zúñiga (c.1536–c.1600), Spanish
theologian and philosopher
5.5 Gaspar de Quiroga (1509–1594), Spanish cardinal
Chapter 6: Science from the Earth in Central Europe
6.1 Ulrich Rülein von Calw (fl. 1500),
German physician and mineralogist
6.2 Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535),
German physician and occultist
6.3, 6.4, 6.5 Georgius Agricola (1494–1555),
German physician and mineralogist
6.6, 6.7, 6.8 Paracelsus (c.1493–1541),
Swiss physician, medical reformer and alchemist
6.9 Oswald Croll (c.1560–1609),
German Paracelsian physician and alchemist
Chapter 7: French Science in the Seventeenth Century
7.1 René Descartes (1596–1650), French philosopher
and mathematician
7.2 Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French philosopher
and mathematician
Chapter 8: Science in Seventeenth-Century England
8.1 William Gilbert (1544–1603), English physician
and natural philosopher
8.2 William Harvey (1578–1657), English physician and anatomist
8.3 Francis Bacon (1561–1626), English statesman,
lawyer, essayist and philosopher
8.4 Robert Hooke (1635–1702), English experimentalist
8.5, 8.6, 8.7 Robert Boyle (1627–1691), Anglo-Irish chemist,
experimentalist and natural philosopher
8.8, 8.9, 8.10 Isaac Newton (1642–1727), English mathematician
and natural philosopher
Licensed to MATHILDA KAJORNKIAT ([email protected])
xii Dramatis Personae
Chapter 9: Scientific Academies across Europe
9.1 Lorenzo Magalotti (1627–1712), Italian virtuoso
9.2 Thomas Sprat (1635–1713), English cleric and virtuoso
9.3 Henry Oldenburg (c.1618–1677), German expatriate
philosophical correspondent
Chapter 10: The Reception of Newtonianism across Europe
10.1 Richard Bentley (1662–1742), English cleric and natural
theologian
10.2 Isaac Newton (1642–1727), English mathematician
and natural philosopher
10.3 John Ray (1627–1705), English naturalist
10.4 Roger Cotes (1682–1716), English mathematician and physicist
10.5 (a) (c) (d) G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716), German philosopher
and mathematician
10.5 (b) Isaac Newton (1642–1727), English mathematician
and natural philosopher
10.6 W. J. ’sGravesande (1688–1742), Dutch mathematician
and physicist
Chapter 11: Science in the Scottish Enlightenment
11.1, 11.2 James Hutton (1726–1797), Scottish geologist
and naturalist
11.3 Joseph Black (1728–1799), Scottish chemist and physicist
11.4 Adam Smith (1723–1790), Scottish political economist
Chapter 12: Science on the Fringe of Europe: Eighteenth-Century Sweden
12.1 Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), Swedish botanist and taxonomist
12.2 C. W. Scheele (1742–1786), Swedish chemist
12.3 E. D. Clarke (1769–1822), English mineralogist and traveller
Chapter 13: Science in Orthodox Europe
13.1 L. Euler (1707–1783), Swiss mathematician,
astronomer and physicist
13.2 S. P. Krasheninnikov (1713–1755), Russian natural historian
13.3 Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russian natural philosopher
Chapter 14: Establishing Science in Eighteenth-Century Europe
14.1 Robert Jameson (1774–1854), Scottish geologist
Dramatis Personae xiii
Chapter 15: The Chemical Revolution
15.1 Stephen Hales (1677–1761), English chemist and cleric
15.2, 15.3 Joseph Priestley (1733–1804),
English chemist and social reformer
15.4 Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), French chemist
Chapter 16: Conclusions
16.1 F. Voltaire (1694–1778), French philosopher
16.2 B. Fontenelle (1657–1757), French philosopher
16.3 Frederick II (1712–1786), Prussian monarch