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Resilient Energy Systems TOPICS IN SAFETY, RISK, RELIABILITY AND QUALITY Volume19 Editor AdrianV.Gheorghe OldDominionUniversity,Norfolk,Virginia,U.S.A. EditorialAdvisoryBoard P.Sander,TechnicalUniversityofEindhoven,TheNetherlands D.C.Barrie,LakeheadUniversity,Ontario,Canada R.Leitch,RoyalMilitaryCollegeofScience(Cranfield),Shriverham,U.K. Aimsand Scope. Fundamental questions whicharebeing asked thesedaysof all products, processesandserviceswitheverincreasingfrequencyare: Whatistherisk? Howsafeisit? Howreliableisit? Howgoodisthequality? Howmuchdoesitcost? Thisisparticularlytrueasthegovernment,industry,public,customersandsocietybecome increasinglyinformedandarticulate. In practice none of the three topics can be considered in isolation as they all interact and interrelate in very complex and subtle ways and require a range of disciplines for their description and application; they encompass the social, engineering and physical sciences andquantitativedisciplinesincludingmathematics,probabilitytheoryandstatistics. The major objective of the series is to provide series of authoritative texts suitable for academic taught courses, reference purposes, postgraduate and other research and practi- tionersgenerallyworkingorstronglyassociatedwithareassuchas: SafetyAssessmentandManagement EmergencyPlanning RiskManagement ReliabilityAnalysisandAssessment VulnerabilityAssessmentandManagement QualityAssuranceandManagement Specialemphasisisplacedontextswithregardtoreadability,relevance,clarity,applicability, rigourandgenerallysoundquantitativecontent. Forfurthervolumes: http://www.springer.com/series/6653 Ion Bostan • Adrian Gheorghe (cid:129) Valeriu Dulgheru Ion Sobor (cid:129) Viorel Bostan (cid:129) Anatolie Sochirean Resilient Energy Systems Renewables: Wind, Solar, Hydro 123 IonBostan AdrianGheorghe TechnicalUniversityofMoldova EngineeringManagement StefanCelMareBoulevard168 andSystemsEngineering 2004Chis¸inaˇu OldDominionUniversity RepublicofMoldova Norfolk,VA,USA ValeriuDulgheru IonSobor MechanicalEngineering TechnicalUniversityofMoldova TechnicalUniversityofMoldova StefanCelMareBoulevard168 StefanCelMareBoulevard168 2004Chis¸inaˇu 2004Chis¸inaˇu RepublicofMoldova RepublicofMoldova AnatolieSochirean ViorelBostan TechnicalUniversityofMoldova TechnicalUniversityofMoldova StefanCelMareBoulevard168 StefanCelMareBoulevard168 2004Chis¸inaˇu 2004Chis¸inaˇu RepublicofMoldova RepublicofMoldova ISSN1566-0443 ISBN978-94-007-4188-1 ISBN978-94-007-4189-8(eBook) DOI10.1007/978-94-007-4189-8 SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergNewYorkLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012938960 ©SpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.2013 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof thematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation, broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformation storageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodology nowknownorhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthislegalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’slocation,initscurrentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer. PermissionsforusemaybeobtainedthroughRightsLinkattheCopyrightClearanceCenter.Violations areliabletoprosecutionundertherespectiveCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication,neithertheauthorsnortheeditorsnorthepublishercanacceptanylegalresponsibilityfor anyerrorsoromissionsthatmaybemade.Thepublishermakesnowarranty,expressorimplied,with respecttothematerialcontainedherein. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Contents 1 Introduction .................................................................. 1 2 UseofRenewableEnergy:World,EuropeanandNational Perspectives................................................................... 5 2.1 Recent Consumptionof Primary Energyat World andatNationalLevels .................................................. 5 2.1.1 WorldConsumptionofPrimaryEnergyintheWorld......... 5 2.2 EnergyandtheEnvironment ........................................... 19 2.2.1 FactorsthatChangetheClimate ............................... 19 2.2.2 HowtoHealTerra .............................................. 30 2.3 RenewableEnergyandSustainableDevelopment..................... 34 2.3.1 Theoretical,TechnicalandEconomicalEnergyPotential .... 34 2.3.2 GlobalRenewableEnergy:ItsPresentandFuture............ 37 2.3.3 ExperienceofEuropeanCountries inRESPromotionandUse..................................... 40 References..................................................................... 45 3 SolarEnergy.................................................................. 47 3.1 TheSunasEnergySource.............................................. 47 3.1.1 GeneralNotions................................................. 47 3.1.2 SolarRadiationontheEarthSurface.......................... 51 3.1.3 TheSunandtheGlobalEnergyBalance ...................... 52 3.1.4 GreenhouseEffectSimulation ................................. 53 3.2 SolarEnergyPotential.................................................. 55 3.2.1 GlobalSolarEnergyPotential.................................. 55 3.2.2 EstimationofAvailableSolarRadiation....................... 56 3.3 SolarEnergyConversionSystems ..................................... 63 3.3.1 GeneralView.................................................... 63 3.3.2 SolarSystemsforWaterHeating .............................. 65 3.3.3 SystemsforSolarThermalEnergyConversion into Electrical Energy by Combining the GreenhouseEffectandAirPressureDifference............... 90 v vi Contents 3.3.4 SolarSystemswithSolarRays’Concentration ............... 104 3.3.5 PhotovoltaicSystems........................................... 125 References..................................................................... 162 4 KineticalEnergyofRiverRunningWater................................ 165 4.1 EnergyPotential......................................................... 165 4.1.1 ClassificationofHydropowerSystems ........................ 165 4.1.2 GlobalEnergyPotential........................................ 166 4.1.3 Macro-,Mini-orMicroHydropower?......................... 171 4.1.4 CalculationofWaterKineticEnergyPotential................ 176 4.1.5 FlowRateMeasurement........................................ 180 4.1.6 HowtoChooseaHydroTurbine? ............................. 183 4.2 HydraulicEnergyConversionSystems................................ 185 4.2.1 BriefHistoryofHydraulicEnergyConversion SystemsDevelopment.......................................... 185 4.2.2 ModernWaterWheels.......................................... 191 4.2.3 FloatingMicroHydroelectricPowerPlantsfor RiverWaterKineticEnergyConversion....................... 216 4.3 MicroHydroelectricPowerPlantwithPintleandBlades withRectilinearProfileinNormalSection ............................ 226 4.3.1 ConceptualDiagrams........................................... 227 4.3.2 ModelingofBladesInteractionwiththeWater ............... 228 4.3.3 LaboratoryTestingoftheMicroHydroelectric PowerPlantwithPintle......................................... 231 4.4 MicroHydroelectricPowerPlantwithHorizontalAxle andHelicalTurbine..................................................... 232 4.4.1 ConceptualDiagrams........................................... 232 4.4.2 SomeAspectsofAnalyticDescriptionofthe BasicGeometricalParameters ................................. 234 4.4.3 ModelingoftheBladesInteractionwithWater ............... 236 4.5 Micro Hydropower Plant with Rotor’s Pintle andHydrodynamicProfileofBlades................................... 240 4.5.1 ConceptualDiagrams........................................... 241 4.5.2 ResearchontheFactorsofInfluenceofKinetic Energy ConversionEfficiency and Design oftheHydrodynamicRotor.................................... 251 4.5.3 PrecessionalMultiplierasMainComponentinthe KinematicalStructureoftheMicroHydropowerPlant....... 307 4.5.4 Design,ManufacturingandTestingofLowSpeed CentrifugalPumpforMicroHydropowerPlants.............. 322 4.5.5 Developmentof the Design Concept and ManufacturingofPilotStationofPolyfunctional Floating Micro Hydro Power Plant for ExperimentalResearchinRealConditions.................... 330 Contents vii 4.5.6 FloatingMicroHydropowerPlantsforRiver WaterKineticEnergyConversionintoElectrical andMechanicalEnergy......................................... 342 References..................................................................... 355 5 WindEnergy ................................................................. 361 5.1 WindasEnergySource................................................. 361 5.2 EstimationoftheWindEnergyResources............................. 364 5.2.1 CharacteristicsandParametersoftheWindEnergy .......... 364 5.2.2 MethodologyofWindPowerPotentialEstimation ........... 368 5.3 StatisticsofWindClimatologyandtheWindAtlas................... 369 5.4 Conversion of the Air Flow Kinetic Energy intoMechanicalEnergy:BetzLimit ................................... 374 5.4.1 WindEnergyandPower........................................ 374 5.4.2 WindTurbineintheAirFlow.................................. 376 5.4.3 BetzLimit....................................................... 377 5.4.4 NumberofBladesandRotorDiameterEffect ................ 379 5.5 EvolutionofWindTechnologyDevelopment ......................... 382 5.5.1 CommencementofCommercialTechnologies................ 382 5.5.2 WindTurbineDesign........................................... 384 5.5.3 PrinciplesofControlofWindTurbinePower OutputtotheGrid .............................................. 388 5.5.4 ConstructiveSchemesforGeneratorOperating............... 391 5.5.5 BladesManufacturingMaterials............................... 393 5.6 LargeWindTurbinesandFarms ....................................... 395 5.6.1 LargeWindTurbines:TrendsandObjectives................. 395 5.6.2 WindFarms..................................................... 400 5.7 SmallPowerWindTurbines............................................ 401 5.7.1 Global Market Overview, Manufacturing CompaniesandIncentivePolicies ............................. 401 5.7.2 SmallPowerWindTurbinesDesignedatthe TechnicalUniversityofMoldova .............................. 410 References..................................................................... 420 6 PermanentMagnetGenerators(PMG)forWindTurbines andMicroHydroTurbines ................................................. 423 6.1 TechnicalRequirementsImposedtoElectricGenerators forHydraulicandWindEnergyConversion........................... 423 6.2 SynchronousGenerators with Electric Excitation orPermanentMagnets.................................................. 425 6.3 ConstructiveSchemesofPMG......................................... 429 6.4 ExampleofWindTurbinePMGDesign............................... 434 6.4.1 MainDimensionsofPMG ..................................... 434 6.4.2 DesignofTeethandSlotsZoneandArmatureWinding...... 436 6.4.3 CalculationofMagneticCircuit................................ 439 6.4.4 CalculationofParameters...................................... 443 viii Contents 6.4.5 ExternalCharacteristicofGenerator........................... 445 6.4.6 MassofActiveMaterials....................................... 446 6.5 PermanentMagnetGeneratoras a ComponentPart ofaWindTurbine....................................................... 449 References..................................................................... 453 7 SeaWavesEnergy............................................................ 455 7.1 Generalities.............................................................. 455 7.2 Energypotential......................................................... 458 7.2.1 TidalEnergyPotential.......................................... 458 7.2.2 OceanCurrentsEnergyPotential .............................. 463 7.2.3 OceanWavesEnergyPotential................................. 465 7.3 TidalEnergy:TheoreticalConsiderations ............................. 467 7.3.1 GeneralNotions................................................. 467 7.3.2 TidalPhysics.................................................... 469 7.3.3 Amplitude,CyclePeriodandTidalBraking .................. 471 7.4 TheoreticalAspectsofWaveEnergy................................... 472 7.4.1 SomeAspectsofWaveFormation............................. 472 7.4.2 TypesandBasicCharacteristicsofWaves..................... 473 7.4.3 WavesandWind................................................ 475 7.4.4 SomeAspectsoftheWaveTheory ............................ 478 7.5 ConceptualSystemsofOceanEnergyConversion.................... 483 7.5.1 ClassificationofConversionSystems ......................... 483 7.5.2 WaterTurbineswithSubmersibleBlades ..................... 484 7.5.3 SystemsBasedontheOscillatingWaterColumn............. 485 7.5.4 SystemwithFloatableElements............................... 485 7.5.5 CostAnalysisofaNumberofCoastalSystems............... 487 7.6 WaveEnergyCaptureSystems......................................... 488 7.6.1 TidalEnergyCaptureSystems................................. 489 7.6.2 WaveEnergyCaptureSystems................................. 491 7.7 WaveEnergyCaptureSystems,Authors’Elaborations............... 495 7.7.1 WaveEnergyConversionPlants ............................... 496 7.7.2 Alternative Rotational Motion Summing MechanismsforWaveEnergyConversionSystems.......... 502 References..................................................................... 506 Chapter 1 Introduction Can you imagine life without television, cars or computers, without being able to prepare your food every day, without lighting in the house, without heating during the cold seasons of the year, etc.? But all this is the result of creative activity of scientists and inventors, especially during the last 200 years. All this may disappear during the first half of the present century, following the drastic depletion of natural reserves of fossil fuels. Increased energy consumption leads to a continuous increase in the volume of extracting fossil fuels, which provides more than 85% of energy use today. Currently, the annual energy consumptionis equivalenttomorethan11billiontonsofconventionalfuelor459EJ(4591018 J), ofwhichonly15.4%isofnon-fossilorigin.Astheworldpopulationincreases,and the level of energyendowmentof the economygrows, simultaneously,this figure issteadilyincreasing,whichfactwillhaveseriousconsequences.Mostacceptable fuels, economically,–oiland naturalgas– are supposed to be aboutexhaustedin 30–50years. Today,mostoftheenergyneededfordailyconsumptionisproducedbyburning fossil fuels – coal, oil and natural gas. Several million years, plants and animals decomposingledto theformationoffossilfuels,which,however,wereconsumed duringabout 200 years, practically.Millions of years, Earth’satmosphere formed a whole plant system, and during a 200 years period, but, particularly in the last 100 years, the environment was seriously jeopardized and the world is facing an ecologicaldisaster. In 1960, 3,000 TWh of electricity were produced and consumed. In 1970 it increased up to 6,000 TWh. 150,000 TWh were consumed in 2000. Even, if it is possible to reduce electricity consumption in industrialized countries (U.S., Germany, Japan, etc.) by half, and at the same time to increase consumption per capita,byonly25%ofglobalelectricity,inIndia,Chinaetc.–thirdworldcountries, the overall demand would double from the today’s one. What energy sources are abletomeettheserequirements?Increasingpowergenerationbyburningtraditional fossilfuels,wouldfurtherendangertheecologicalsystem.Theexpectationofpower engineering professionals is based on finding new solutions and processes that I.Bostanetal.,ResilientEnergySystems,TopicsinSafety,Risk, 1 ReliabilityandQuality19,DOI10.1007/978-94-007-4189-8 1, ©SpringerScienceCBusinessMediaB.V.2013