Psychology: core concepts

773 Pages·73.655 MB·English

by  Hamilton, Vivian McCann, Johnson, Robert Lee, Zimbardo, Philip G

Psychology: Core Concepts
Philip G. Zimbardo Robert L. Johnson
Vivian McCann Hamilton
Seventh Edition
ISBN 10: 1-292-02124-1
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02124-9
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk
© Pearson Education Limited 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the
prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark
in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such
trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affi liation with or endorsement of this
book by such owners.
ISBN 10: 1-292-02124-1
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02124-9
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Printed in the United States of America
1122334451261604060501999755933575
P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
Glossary
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 1
Appendix: Making Sense of the Data: Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 19
1. Mind, Behavior, and Psychological Science
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 29
2. Biopsychology, Neuroscience, and Human Nature
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 69
3. Sensation and Perception
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 117
4. Learning and Human Nurture
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 165
5. Memory
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 205
6. Thinking and Intelligence
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 249
7. Development Over the Lifespan
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 303
8. States of Consciousness
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 363
9. Motivation and Emotion
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 405
10. Personality: Theories of the Whole Person
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 457
11. Social Psychology
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 505
I
566776040335939
12. Psychological Disorders
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 563
13. Therapies for Psychological Disorders
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 605
14. From Stress to Health and Well-Being
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 649
References
Philip G. Zimbardo/Robert L. Johnson/Vivian McCann 703
Index 739
II
Glossary
From Psychology: Core Concepts, Seventh Edition. Philip G. Zimbardo, Robert L. Johnson, Vivian McCann.
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
G L O S S A R Y
Absent-mindedness F orgetting caused by Affective disturbances D isorders of emotion Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder involv-
lapses in attention. or mood. ing persistent loss of appetite that endan-
Absolute threshold T he amount of stimula- Afterimages S ensations that linger after the gers an individual’s health and stemming
tion necessary for a stimulus to be detected. stimulus is removed. Most visual after- from emotional or psychological reasons
In practice, this means that the presence or images are negative afterimages, which rather than from organic causes.
absence of a stimulus is detected correctly appear in reversed colors. Antagonists D rugs or other chemicals that
half the time over many trials. Agonists D rugs or other chemicals that inhibit the effects of neurotransmitters.
Abu Ghraib Prison Prison in Iraq made enhance or mimic the effects of neuro- Anterograde amnesia The inability to form
famous by revelation of photos taken by transmitters. new memories (as opposed to retrograde
Army Reserve MP guards in the acts of Agoraphobia A fear of public places and amnesia, which involves the inability to
humiliating and torturing prisoners. open spaces, commonly accompanying remember information previously stored
Accommodation A mental process that modi- panic disorder. in memory).
fi es schemas in order to include (or accom- Alarm phase F irst phase of the GAS, during Antianxiety drugs A category of medicines
modate) new information. which body resources are mobilized to that includes the barbiturates and benzo-
Acoustic encoding T he conversion of infor- cope with the stressor. diazepines, drugs that diminish feelings
mation, especially semantic information, Algorithms Problem-solving procedures of anxiety.
to sound patterns in working memory. or formulas that guarantee a correct Antidepressants M edicines that treat de-
Acquisition T he initial learning stage in outcome, if correctly applied. pression, usually by their effects on the
classical conditioning, during which the All-or-none principle R efers to the fact that serotonin and/or norepinephrine path-
conditioned response comes to be elicited the action potential in the axon occurs ways in the brain.
by the conditioned stimulus. either completely or not at all. Antipsychotics M edicines that diminish psy-
Action potential The nerve impulse caused Alzheimer’s disease A degenerative brain chotic symptoms, usually by effects on
by a change in the electrical charge across disease usually noticed fi rst by its debili- the dopamine pathways in the brain.
the cell membrane of the axon. When the tating effects on memory. Antisocial personality disorder C ondition in-
neuron “fi res,” this charge travels down Ambiguous fi gures Images that can be inter- volving a lack of conscience or a sense of
the axon and causes neurotransmitters to preted in more than one way. There is no responsibility to others.
be released by the terminal buttons. “right” way to see an ambiguous fi gure.
Anxiety disorder M ental problem character-
Activation-synthesis theory T he theory that Amplitude The physical strength of a wave. ized mainly by anxiety. Anxiety disorders
dreams begin (are activated) with random This is shown on graphs as the height of include panic disorder, specifi c phobias,
electrical activation coming from the the wave. and obsessive–compulsive disorder.
brain stem. Dreams, then, are the brain’s Amygdala A limbic system structure in- Anxious-ambivalent attachment O ne of two
attempt to make sense of (to synthesize) volved in memory and emotion, particu- primary response patterns seen in inse-
this random activity. larly fear and aggression. Pronounced curely attached children in which a child
Active listener A person who gives the a-MIG-da-la. wants contact with the caregiver, shows
speaker feedback in such forms as nod- Analysis of transference T he Freudian tech- excessive distress when separated from
ding, paraphrasing, maintaining an nique of analyzing and interpreting the the caregiver, and proves diffi cult to con-
expression that shows interest, and patient’s relationship with the therapist, sole even when reunited.
asking questions for clarifi cation. based on the assumption that this rela-
Applied psychologists P sychologists who
Acute stress A temporary state of arousal, tionship mirrors unresolved confl icts in
use the knowledge developed by experi-
caused by a stressor, with a distinct onset the patient’s past.
mental psychologists to solve human
and limited duration. Analytical intelligence A ccording to Sternberg, problems.
Addiction A condition in which a person the ability measured by most IQ tests;
Aptitudes I nnate potentialities (as contrasted
continues to use a drug despite its ad- includes the ability to analyze problems
with abilities acquired by learning).
verse effects—often despite repeated at- and fi nd correct answers.
tempts to discontinue using the drug. Anchoring bias A faulty heuristic caused by Archetype O ne of the ancient memory images
Addiction may be based on physical or basing (anchoring) an estimate on a com- in the collective unconscious. Archetypes
psychological dependence. pletely irrelevant quantity. appear and reappear in art, literature, and
folktales around the world.
Adolescence I n industrial societies, a de- Anecdotal evidence First-hand accounts that
velopmental period beginning at puberty vividly describe the experiences of one Artificial concepts C oncepts defined by
and ending (less clearly) at adulthood. or a few people, but may erroneously be rules, such as word defi nitions and math-
Adoption study A method of separating the assumed to be scientifi c evidence. ematical formulas.
effect of nature and nurture by which Animistic thinking A preoperational mode Asch effect A form of conformity in which
investigators compare characteristics of of thought in which inanimate objects a group majority influences individual
adopted children with those of individuals are imagined to have life and mental judgments of unambiguous stimuli, as
in their biological and adoptive families. processes. with line judgments.
2
Glossary
Assimilation A mental process that incor- Avoidant attachment O ne of two primary and texture are combined to produce the
porates new information into existing response patterns seen in insecurely percept of a person’s face. No one knows
schemas. attached children, in which a child shows exactly how the brain does this. Thus, the
Association cortex C ortical regions through- no interest in contact with the caregiver binding problem is one of the major un-
and displays neither distress when sepa-
out the brain that combine information solved mysteries in psychology.
rated from the caregiver nor happiness
from various other parts of the brain. when reunited. Binocular cues Information taken in by
both eyes that aids in depth perception,
Attachment The enduring socio-emotional Axon I n a nerve cell, an extended fi ber that
including binocular convergence and ret-
relationship between a child and a parent conducts information from the soma to
inal disparity.
or other regular caregiver. the terminal buttons. Information travels
Biological drive A motive, such as thirst,
Attention A process by which conscious- along the axon in the form of an electric
that is based primarily in biology. A drive
ness focuses on a single item or “chunk” charge called the a ction potential.
is a state of tension that motivates an
in working memory. Babbling T he production of repetitive syl-
organism to satisfy a biological need.
Attention-defi cit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A lables, characteristic of the early stages of
Biological perspective T he psychological
developmental disorder involving short language acquisition.
perspective that searches for the causes of
attention span, distractibility and diffi culty Base rate information T he probability of a
behavior in the functioning of genes, the
concentrating, poor impulse control, and characteristic occurring in the general
brain and nervous system, and the endo-
excessive activity. population period.
crine (hormone) system.
Authoritarian parent O ne of the four par- Basic anxiety A n emotion, proposed by
Biomedical therapy T reatment that focuses
enting styles, characterized by demands Karen Horney, that gives a sense of un-
on altering the brain, especially with
for conformity and obedience, with little certainty and loneliness in a hostile world
drugs, psychosurgery, or electroconvul-
tolerance for discussion of rules, which and can lead to maladjustment.
sive therapy.
the parent enforces with punishment or Basilar membrane A thin strip of tissue sen- Biopsychology The specialty in psychology
threats of punishment. sitive to vibrations in the cochlea. The that studies the interaction of biology,
Authoritative parent O ne of the four parent- basilar membrane contains hair cells con- behavior, and mental processes.
ing styles, characterized by high expec- nected to neurons. When a sound wave
Bipolar disorder A mental abnormality in-
tations of the children, which the parent causes the hair cells to vibrate, the associ-
volving swings of mood from mania to
enforces with consequences, rather than ated neurons become excited. As a result,
depression.
punitive actions. Authoritative parents the sound waves are converted (trans-
Blind spot T he point where the optic nerve
combine high standards with warmth duced) into nerve activity.
exits the eye and where there are no pho-
and respect for the child’s views. Behavior modifi cation A nother term for be-
toreceptors. Any stimulus that falls on
Autism A developmental disorder marked havior therapy. this area cannot be seen.
by disabilities in language, social inter- Behavior therapy A ny form of psychother- Blindsight T he ability to locate objects de-
action, and the ability to understand an- apy based on the principles of behavioral
spite damage to the visual system mak-
other person’s state of mind. learning, especially operant conditioning
ing it impossible for a person consciously
Autokinetic effect T he perceived motion of and classical conditioning. to see and identify objects. Blindsight is
a stationary dot of light in a totally dark Behavioral learning F orms of learning, such thought to involve unconscious visual
room; used by Muzafir Sherif to study as classical conditioning and operant processing in the where pathway.
the formation of group norms. conditioning, that can be described in Blocking F orgetting that occurs when an
Autonomic nervous system T he portion of terms of stimuli and responses. item in memory cannot be accessed or re-
the peripheral nervous system that sends Behavioral medicine M edical fi eld specializing trieved. Blocking is caused by interference.
communications between the central ner- in the link between lifestyle and disease. Body image A n individual’s perception of and
vous system and the internal organs and Behavioral perspective A psychological feelings about their physical app earance.
glands. viewpoint that finds the source of our Borderline personality disorder C ondition of
Autonomy In Erikson’s theory, autonomy actions in environmental stimuli rather instability and impulsivity; persons have
is the major developmental task of the than in inner mental processes. unpredictable moods and stormy inter-
second stage in childhood. Achieving Behaviorism A historical school (as well as personal relationships, with little toler-
autonomy involves developing a sense a modern perspective) that has sought ance for frustration.
of independence, as opposed to being to make psychology an objective s cience Bottom-up processing P erceptual analysis
plagued by self-doubt. focusing only on behavior—to the that emphasizes characteristics of the
Availability bias A faulty heuristic strategy exclusion of mental processes. stimulus, rather than our concepts and
that estimates probabilities based on the Benefi t fi nding The second phase of fi nding expectations. “Bottom” refers to the
availability of vivid mental images of meaning in a stressful situation, which stimulus, which occurs at step one of per-
the event. involves seeing some ultimate benefit ceptual processing.
Aversion therapy A s a classical conditioning from the stressor. Brain stem The most primitive of the brain’s
procedure, aversive counterconditioning Binding problem R efers to the process used three major layers. It includes the me-
involves presenting the individual with an by the brain to combine (or “bind”) the dulla, pons, and the reticular formation.
attractive stimulus paired with unpleas- results of many sensory operations into a Brightness A psychological sensation
ant (aversive) stimulation to condition a single percept. This occurs, for example, caused by the intensity (amplitude) of
repulsive reaction. when sensations of color, shape, boundary, light waves.
3
Glossary
Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder char- inattentional blindness, change blindness are interested in the connection between
acterized by eating binges followed requires comparing a current scene to one mental processes and the brain.
by “purges,” induced by vomiting or from the past, stored in memory. Cognitive perspective A nother of the main
laxatives; typically initiated as a weight- Childhood amnesia The inability to remem- psychological viewpoints distinguished
control measure. ber events during the first two or three by an emphasis on mental processes,
Bullying The act of tormenting others, in years of life. such as learning, memory, perception,
school classrooms or work settings, by Chromosome T ightly coiled threadlike and thinking, as forms of information
one or more people, for personal, sadistic structure along which the genes are orga- processing.
pleasure. It qualifies as a form of ordi- nized, like beads on a necklace. Chromo- Cognitive restructuring R eappraising a stress-
nary or everyday evil. somes consist primarily of DNA. or with the goal of seeing it from a more
Burnout A syndrome of emotional exhaus- Chronic stressor Long-lasting stressful positive perspective.
tion, physical fatigue, and cognitive wea- condition. Cognitive therapy Emphasizes rational think-
riness, often related to work. Chronological age (CA) T he number of years ing (as opposed to subjective emotion,
Bystander intervention problem L aboratory since the individual’s birth. motivation, or repressed confl icts) as the
and field study analogues of the diffi- key to treating mental disorders.
Chunking Organizing pieces of informa-
culties faced by bystanders in real emer- tion into a smaller number of meaningful Cognitive–behavioral therapy A newer form
gency situations. of psychotherapy that combines the tech-
units (or chunks)—a process that frees
Cannon–Bard theory T he counterproposal up space in working memory. niques of cognitive therapy with those of
that an emotional feeling and an internal behavioral therapy.
Circadian rhythm A physiological pattern that
physiological response occur at the same Cohesiveness S olidarity, loyalty, and a sense
repeats approximately every 24 hours—
time: One is not the cause of the other. of group membership.
such as the sleep–wakefulness cycle.
Both were believed to be the result of Collective unconscious J ung’s addition to
Classical conditioning A form of behavioral
cognitive appraisal of the situation. the unconscious, involving a reservoir
learning in which a previously neutral stim-
Case study R esearch involving a single in- for instinctive “memories,” including the
ulus acquires the power to elicit the same
dividual (or, at most, a few individuals). archetypes, which exist in all people.
innate refl ex produced by another stimulus.
Catastrophic event A sudden, violent calam- Collectivism The view, common in Asia,
Client-centered therapy A humanistic ap-
ity, either natural or manmade, that causes Africa, Latin America, and the Middle
proach to treatment developed by Carl
trauma. East, that values group loyalty and pride
Rogers, emphasizing an individual’s ten-
Catharsis A theory suggesting that emo- dency for healthy psychological growth over individual distinction.
tional pressure can be relieved by ex- through self-actualization. Color Also called h ue. Color is not a prop-
pressing feelings directly or indirectly. erty of things in the external world.
Closure T he Gestalt principle that identifi es
Central nervous system (CNS) T he brain and the tendency to fi ll in gaps in fi gures and Rather, it is a psychological sensation
the spinal cord. to see incomplete fi gures as complete. created in the brain from information
obtained by the eyes from the wave-
Centration A preoperational thought pat- Cochlea The primary organ of hearing; a
lengths of visible light.
tern involving the inability to take into coiled tube in the inner ear, where sound
account more than one factor at a time. waves are transduced into nerve messages. Color blindness T ypically a genetic disor-
der (although sometimes the result of
Cerebellum T he “little brain” attached to Cognitive appraisal O ur interpretation of trauma, as in the case of Jonathan) that
the brain stem. The cerebellum is respon- a stressor and our resources for dealing
prevents an individual from discriminat-
sible for coordinated movements. with it.
ing certain colors. The most common
Cerebral cortex T he thin gray matter cover- Cognitive development T he global term for form is red–green color blindness.
ing the cerebral hemispheres, consisting of the development of thought processes
Coma A n unconscious state, during which
a ¼-inch layer dense with cell bodies of from childhood through adulthood.
a person lacks the normal cycles of sleep
neurons. The cerebral cortex carries on the
Cognitive dissonance A highly motivating and wakefulness, that usually lasts only a
major portion of our “higher” mental pro-
state in which people have conflicting few days. The comatose state differs from
cessing, including thinking and perceiving.
cognitions, especially when their volun- the m inimally conscious state and the
Cerebral dominance T he tendency of each tary actions confl ict with their attitudes or persistent vegetative state.
brain hemisphere to exert control over values. Leon Festinger was its originator. Combination therapy A therapeutic approach
different functions, such as language or
Cognitive map I n Tolman’s work, a cognitive that involves both psychological and
perception of spatial relationships.
map was a mental representation of a medical techniques—most often a drug
Cerebral hemispheres T he large symmetrical maze or other physical space. Psycholo- therapy with a behavioral or cognitive–
halves of the brain located atop the brain gists often used the term c ognitive map behavioral therapy.
stem. more broadly to include an understand- Community mental health movement A n
Chameleon effect T he tendency to mimic ing of connections among concepts. Thus, effort to deinstitutionalize mental pa-
other people, named after the animal that a cognitive map can represent either a tients and to provide therapy from
changes its skin color to fi t into its varied physical or a mental “space.” outpatient clinics. Proponents of com-
environments. Cognitive neuroscience A n interdisciplinary munity mental health envisioned that
Change blindness A perceptual failure to fi eld involving cognitive psychology, neu- recovering patients could live with their
notice that a visual scene has changed from rology, biology, computer science, linguis- families, in foster homes, or in group
the way it had appeared previously. Unlike tics, and specialists from other fi elds who homes.
4
Glossary
Compassion fatigue A state of exhaustion change but nothing is added or taken is the evidence? Could bias contaminate
experienced by medical and psychological away. the conclusion? Does the reasoning avoid
professionals, as well as caregivers, which Consolidation T he process by which short- common fallacies? Does the issue require
leaves the individual feeling stressed, term memories become long-term memo- multiple perspectives?
numb, or indifferent. ries over a period of time. Cross-cultural psychologists T hose who
Compassion satisfaction A sense of apprecia- Contact comfort S timulation and reassur- work in this specialty are interested in
tion felt by a caregiver, medical or psy- ance derived from the physical touch of how psychological processes may differ
chological professional, of the work he a caregiver. among people of different cultures.
or she does. Contingency management An operant con- Crystallized intelligence The knowledge a
Computer metaphor T he idea that the brain ditioning approach to changing behavior person has acquired plus the ability to
is an information-processing organ that by altering the consequences, especially access that knowledge.
operates, in some ways, like a computer. rewards and punishments, of behavior. CT scanning or computerized tomography A
Concept hierarchies L evels of concepts, from Continuous reinforcement A type of rein- computerized imaging technique that
most general to most specifi c, in which a forcement schedule by which all correct uses X-rays passed through the brain
more general level includes more specifi c responses are reinforced. at various angles and then combined
concepts—as the concept of “animal” in- Contralateral pathways S ensory and mo- into an image.
cludes “dog,” “giraffe,” and “butterfl y.” tor pathways between the brain and the Culture A complex blend of language, beliefs,
Concepts Mental groupings of similar rest of the body cross over to the oppo- customs, values, and traditions developed
objects, ideas, or experiences. site side en route, so messages from the by a group of people and shared with oth-
Concrete operational stage T he third of right side of the body are processed by ers in the same environment.
Piaget’s stages, when a child understands the left side of the brain and vice versa. Cytokines H ormone-like chemicals that fi ght
conservation but still is incapable of Control group P articipants who are used infection and facilitate communication
abstract thought. as a comparison for the experimental between the brain and immune system.
Conditioned reinforcer or secondary rein- group. The control group is not given the Data P ieces of information, especially infor-
forcer A stimulus, such as money or to- special treatment of interest. mation gathered by a researcher to be used
kens, that acquires its reinforcing power Conversion disorder A type of somatoform in testing a hypothesis. (Singular: datum.)
by a learned association with primary disorder marked by paralysis, weakness, Daydreaming A common (and quite nor-
reinforcers. or loss of sensation but with no discern- mal) variation of consciousness in which
Conditioned response (CR) In classical condi- ible physical cause. attention shifts to memories, expecta-
tioning, a response elicited by a previously Coping T aking action that reduces or elimi- tions, desires, or fantasies and away from
neutral stimulus that has become associ- nates the causes of stress, not merely its the immediate situation.
ated with the unconditioned stimulus. symptoms. Declarative memory A division of LTM that
Conditioned stimulus (CS) I n classical condi- Coping strategy An action that reduces or stores explicit information; also known
tioning, a previously neutral stimulus that eliminates the impact of stress. as fact memory. Declarative memory has
comes to elicit the conditioned response. Corpus callosum T he band of nerve cells two subdivisions, episodic memory and
Customarily, in a conditioning experi- connecting and enabling communication semantic memory.
ment, the neutral stimulus is called a con- between the two cerebral hemispheres. Defending E fforts taken to reduce the
ditioned stimulus when it is fi rst paired Correlational study A form of research in symptoms of stress or one’s awareness of
with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). which the relationship between variables them.
Cones P hotoreceptors in the retina that are is studied, but without the experimental Dehumanization T he psychological process
especially sensitive to colors but not to manipulation of an independent variable. of thinking about certain other people or
dim light. You may have guessed that the Correlational studies cannot determine groups as less than human, as like feared
cones are cone-shaped. cause-and-effect relationships. or hated animals. A basic process in
Confi rmation bias The tendency to attend to Cortisol A steroid produced by the fi ght-or- much prejudice and mass violence.
evidence that complements and confi rms fl ight response. Deinstitutionalization T he policy of remov-
our beliefs or expectations, while ignor- Creative intelligence A ccording to Sternberg, ing patients, whenever possible, from
ing evidence that does not. the form of intelligence that helps people mental hospitals.
Conformity The tendency for people to see new relationships among concepts; Delusion A n extreme disorder of think-
adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and opin- involves insight and creativity. ing, involving persistent false beliefs.
ions of other members of a group. Creativity A mental process that produces Delusions are the hallmark of paranoid
Consciousness T he process by which the novel responses that contribute to the so- disorders.
brain creates a mental model of our lutions of problems. Dendrite B ranched fiber that extends
experience. The most common, or ordi- Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) A outward from the cell body and carries
nary, consciousness occurs during wake- specifi c type of psychological debriefi ng information into the neuron.
fulness, although there are can be altered that follows a strict, step-by-step agenda. Dependent variable T he measured outcome
states of consciousness. Critical thinking skills This book emphasizes of a study; the responses of the subjects
Conservation The understanding that the six critical thinking skills, based on the in a study.
physical properties of an object or sub- following questions: What is the source? Depersonalization D epriving people of their
stance do not change when appearances Is the claim reasonable or extreme? What identity and individuality by treating
5