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Pond Aquaculture Water Quality Management PDF

711 Pages·1998·19.58 MB·English
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po D QU ULTURE WATER QUALITY M N <:iEME po D AQU CULTURB WATBR QUALITY M AgBMB T CCLLAAUUDDBB BB.. BBOOYYDD AAlluubbuummuu AA''55ffiiccuuhhuuffuull EERRppeeffiimmeenntt ssttuuttiioonn DDeeppuuffttmmeenntt ooff ffiisshheerfiieess uunndd AAlllliieedd AAqquuuuccuullttuuffeess AAuubbuurfnn uunniivveeffssiittvv,, AAlluubbuummuu CCRRAAII<<jj SS.. TTUUCCKKBBRR DDeehhuu RReesseeuurfcchh uunndd EERRtteennssiioonn cceenntteerf MMiissssiissssiippppii ssttuuttee uunniivveerfssiittvv ssttoonneevviillllee,, MMiissssiissssiippppii ~. " SSPPRRIINNGGEERR SSCCIIEENNCCEE++BBUUSSIINNEESSSS MMEEDDIIAA,, LLLLCC Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Boyd, Claude E. Pond aquaculture water quality management / Claude E. Boyd, Craig S. Tucker. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-7469-5 ISBN 978-1-4615-5407-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-5407-3 l. Pond Aquaculture. 2. Aquatic organisms --Effeet ofwater pollution on. 3. Water quality management. I. Tucker, C.S. (Craig S.), 1951-.11. Title. SH1373.4.B686 1998 639.8--dc21 97-48251 CIP Copyright © 1998 by Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1998 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1998 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 10 1 Philip Drive, Assinippi Park, Norwell, Massachusetts 02061 Printed on acid-free paper. Contents Preface xi Selected Atomic Weights xiii Customary Metric Conversion Factors xv 1. Water Quality and Aquaculture: Preliminary considerations 1.1. Introduction 1.2. The Role of Pond Aquaculture 2 1.3. Water Quality Restraints 3 1.4. Water Quality Management 5 1.5. Water Quality Measurement 6 1.6. Prospectus 7 2. Ecology of Aquaculture Ponds 8 2.1. Introduction 8 2.2. Food Webs and Aquaculture Production 9 2.3. Aquaculture Production in Pond Culture Systems 13 2.4. Phytoplankton Communities 15 2.5. Carbon in Aquaculture Ponds 37 2.6. Nitrogen in Aquaculture Ponds 46 2.7. Phosphorus in Aquaculture Ponds 62 2.8. Fate of Nutrients and Organic Matter 70 2.9. Dissolved Oxygen in Aquaculture Ponds 75 3. Water Quality Requirements 87 3.1. Introduction 87 3.2. Aquatic Toxicology 87 3.3. Water Temperature 88 3.4. Salinity 94 vi / Contents 3.5. pH 100 3.6. Total Alkalinity 106 3.7. Total Hardness and Calcium 109 3.8. Dissolved Oxygen 113 3.9. Carbon Dioxide 121 3.10. Dissolved Gas Supersaturation 124 3.11. Ammonia 131 3.12. Nitrite 136 3.13. Nitrate 143 3.14. Hydrogen Sulfide 144 3.15. Copper and Other Heavy Metals 147 3.16. Chlorine 151 3.17. Turbidity 152 4. Water Use 154 4.1. Introduction 154 4.2. Types of Ponds 154 4.3. Water Budgets 157 4.4. Water Requirement for Aquaculture 168 4.5. Water Exchange 168 4.6. Water Conservation Techniques 174 5. Liming 178 5.1. Introduction 178 5.2. Liming Materials 178 5.3. Effects on Water Quality and Fish Production 190 5.4. Identification of Ponds Needing Lime 194 5.5. Soil Characteristics and Liming 198 5.6. Lime Requirement 206 5.7. Liming Practices 216 5.8. Acid Rain 224 6. Fertilization 226 6.1. Introduction 226 6.2. Chemical Fertilizers 226 6.3. Manures 245 6.4. Principles of Pond Fertilization 247 6.5. Review of Fertilization Trials 276 6.6. The Practice of Pond Fertilization 295 7. Aeration 306 7.1. Introduction 306 7.2. Aeration and Production 306 7.3. Mechanical Aerators 312 7.4. Gravity Aeration 320 Contents / vii 7.5. Aerator Performance 324 7.6. Improved Design for Paddle-Wheel Aerators 330 7.7. Practical Considerations 333 7.8. Predicting Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations 344 8. Water Circulation 354 8.1. Introduction 354 8.2. Temperature and Stratification 354 8.3. Devices for Circulating Pond Water 359 804. Measurement of Water Circulation 366 8.5. Effects of Water Circulation 371 9. Turbidity and Appearance of Water 374 9.1. Introduction 374 9.2. Measurements of the Appearance of Water 375 9.3. Enhancing Turbidity 379 9.4. Sources of Turbidity 380 9.5. Sedimentation in Ponds 380 9.6. Settling Basins and Erosion Control 382 9.7. Turbidity Removal from Pond Waters 384 10. Aquatic Weed Control 394 10.1. Introduction 394 10.2. Common Aquatic Weeds 394 10.3. The Occurrence of Weed Problems 406 lOA. Management of Aquatic Weed Problems 408 10.5. General Pond Management Practices 408 10.6. Biological Control 409 10.7. Chemical Control 413 10.8. Control of Phytoplankton Blooms 423 11. Off-Flavors and Harmful Algae 439 11.1. Introduction 439 11.2. Off-Flavors 439 11.3. Harmful Algae 461 12. Pollution 472 12.1. Introduction 472 12.2. Toxicity Tests 472 12.3. Types of Pollution 478 1204. Toxicity Investigations 490 12.5. Protection from Pollution 497 viii / Contents 13. Chemical, Physical, and Biological Treatments 498 13.1. Introduction 498 13.2. Oxidants 498 13.3. Piscicides 512 13.4. Toxic Metabolites and pH 516 13.5. Therapeutants 524 13.6. Probiotics 525 13.7. Bactericides 528 13.8. Miscellaneous Treatments 528 13.9. Registration of Chemicals 530 13.10. Application of Chemicals to Ponds 531 14. Waste Management 541 14.1. Introduction 541 14.2. Source of Nutrients and Organic Matter 541 14.3. Fate of Nutrients and Organic Matter 544 14.4. Sources of Suspended Solids 546 14.5. Volume of Effluents 547 14.6. Composition of Pond Effluents 548 14.7. Water Quality Improvement through Pond Management 551 14.8. Effluent Treatment 558 14.9. Environmental Effects 563 14.10. Solid Wastes 567 14.11. Effluent Regulations 570 14.12. Best Management Practices 573 15. Measurement of Water Quality 576 15.1. Introduction 576 15.2. Variability of Water Quality 576 15.3. Types of Water Assessment Programs 585 15.4. Guidelines for Sampling Programs 587 15.5. Water Samplers and Sample Storage 591 15.6. Water Analysis Kits and Portable Meters 595 15.7. Data Analysis and Records 599 16. Sustainability and Environmental Issues 601 16.1. Introduction 601 16.2. Environmental Concerns 602 16.3. Food Safety Considerations 609 16.4. Social Concerns 616 16.5. Sustainability 618 16.6. Environmental Impact Assessment 620 16.7. Impact Mitigation 621 16.8. Rehabilitation 622 Contents / ix 16.9. Demonstration and Education 622 16.10. Industry Efforts 623 References 625 Index 685 Preface The efficient and profitable production of fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic organisms in aquaculture depends on a suitable environment in which they can reproduce and grow. Because those organisms live in water, the major environ mental concern within the culture system is water quality. Water supplies for aquaculture systems may naturally be oflow quality or polluted by human activity, but in most instances, the primary reason for water quality impairment is the culture activity itself. Manures, fertilizers, and feeds applied to ponds to enhance production only can be partially converted to animal biomass. Thus, at moderate and high production levels, the inputs of nutrients and organic matter to culture units may exceed the assimilative capacity of the ecosystems. The result is deteriorating water quality which stresses the culture species, and stress leads to poor growth, greater incidence of disease, increased mortality, and low produc tion. Effluents from aquaculture systems can cause pollution of receiving waters, and pollution entering ponds in source water or chemicals added to ponds for management purposes can contaminate aquacultural products. Thus, water quality in aquaculture extends into the arenas of environmental protection and food quality and safety. A considerable body of literature on water quality management in aquaculture has been accumulated over the past 50 years. The first attempt to compile this information was a small book entitled Water Quality in Warmwater Fish Ponds (Boyd I 979a). The information in that book has been updated twice (Boyd 1982a, 1990). However, the knowledge of water quality in aquaculture is expanding rapidly, as are the demands on practical aquaculturists to exercise more aggressive water quality management in their production systems. Therefore, we have joined together to thoroughly revise the book Water Quality in Ponds for Aquaculture (Boyd 1990). The earlier books contained major sections on the principles of water quality, because practical aquaculturists and even the researchers, extension agents, and consultants who advise them usually have only a vague understanding xii / Preface of these principles. The understanding of water quality principles within the aquaculture community is still less than adequate, but for the sake of brevity, we have limited the amount of background information on water quality in favor of providing more details on water quality management in this volume. Those who need more information on basic principles, and water chemistry in particular, can consult Boyd (1990). The purpose of our book is to provide a practical account of water quality management for commercial aquaculture. The adjective commercial is somewhat redundant because, to our knowledge, almost all aquaculture is a business, and even researchers involved in aquaculture are conducting their efforts for the purpose of improving techniques for use by farmers. We hope that this book will be useful to graduate students, researchers, extension agents, producers, and others involved in the aquaculture industry who at various times are confronted with water quality problems and issues. We are extremely grateful to a great number of people who have either enlight ened us about certain aspects of water quality management, collaborated with us on research projects, joined in meaningful exchanges of ideas, presented us difficult, practical problems for which answers were important, and scolded us because we were unable to provide answers. We cannot remember everyone, but some were particularly helpful and unforgettable to include: Y oram A vnimelich, the late H. S. Swingle, E. W. Shell, H. R. Schmittou, Barnaby Watten, Prasert Munsiri, C. Kwei Lin, Fred Adams, E. E. Prather, Ben Hajek, Dan Fegan, Sidthi and Mali Boonyaratpalin, Alfonso Delfini, Gilberto Escobar, Norman Chwang, Yont Musig, Don Johnson, Malcolm Johnson, Jr., Edward Scura, Michael Phillips, Gary Proder, Wes Wood, the late Joseph Durda, Thed Spree, Harry Daniels, John Jensen, Larry Benefield, Greg Whitis, Noel Morrissy, Plodprasop Suraswadi, Suraphol Pratuangtum, Tim Flegel, George Chamberlain, Yoshi Hirono, Jorge Calderon, Tineke van der Ploeg, John Hester, Arlo Fast, and John Hargreaves. This book could not have been completed without the efforts of June Bums and Susan Kingsbury in typing and editing the manuscript and the assistance of Amit Gross with the drawings.

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The efficient and profitable production of fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic organisms in aquaculture depends on a suitable environment in which they can reproduce and grow. Because those organisms live in water, the major environ­ mental concern within the culture system is water quality. Water
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