Plantago spp. and Bidens spp.: A case study of change in Hawaiian herbal medicine

2004·17.5 MB·English

by  Christian Palmer

Spring/Summer
Journal of Ethnobiology 13-31 2004
24(1):
AND
A CHANGE
CASE STUDY OF
spp
Plantago Bidens spp:
HAWAIIAN HERBAL MEDICINE
IN
PALMER
CHRISTIAN
CT
New
and Environmental Haven, 06511
Yale School Forestry Studies,
of
([email protected])
—
ABSTRACT. The Hawaiian
substitution of alien species for native plants in tra-
examined from
ditional medicine discussed. Substitutions are the switch vari-
is
more and from
ous native Bidens spp. to the ubiquitous Bidens pilosa L. the switch
and
the native plantains, Plantago pacltypltylla A. Gray, Plantago hawaiensis A. Gray,
Cham, and
Plantago princeps Schlechtend, to Plantago major L. Historical, cultural,
and data are synthesized to examine these changes in the traditional
scientific
new
Hawaiian pharmacopoeia. Major elements that affect the inclusion of plants
in the Hawaiian pharmacopoeia are availability and biological activity. This pro-
how
cess of inclusion also provides insight into indigenous scientists adapt phar-
changing and environment.
macological traditions to the biological cultural
Key words: Hawaii, la'au lapa'au, ethnomedicine, Bidens, Plantago.
—
RESUMQ A
med-
substituigao de especies introduzidas pelas plantas nativas na
icina tradicional do Havai e debatida. As substitutes examinadas sao das es-
pecies de Bidens nativas para Bidens pilosa e a substituigao das Plantago spp. na-
P
para
inclusive Plantago pachyphylla, hawaiensis e princeps, Plantago major.
tivas, P.
Os aspectos historicos, culturais e cientificos sao sintetizados para examinar estas
Os
mudan^as na farmacopeia tradicional do Havai. dois elementos mais impor-
tantes na inclusao de novas plantas na etnofarmacopeia do Havai sao a facilidade
como
de acesso das plantas e atividade biologico. Este processo ensina cientistas
indigenas adaptam tradi^oes farmacologicos as mudanqas nos meios biol6gico e
cultural.
—
RESUME. etude rend compte de d'especes introduites aux d£-
Cette l'utilisation
pens des plantes indigenes dans medecine traditionnelle hawaiienne. La plante
la
ubiquiste, Bidens pilosa L., ainsi que le Plantago major L., ont remplace respective-
ment plusieurs Bidens spp. indigenes et les Plantago pachyphylla A. Gray, hawaien-
P.
A. Gray et P princeps Cham, et Schlecht. Afin de comprendre ces changements
sis
dans pharmacopee traditionnelle hawaiienne, une synthase des donnees his-
la
Les principaux determi-
toriques, culturelles, et scientifiques a ete faite. facteurs
dans pharmacopee hawaiienne
nant de nouvelles plantes resident
l'inclusion la
dans leur disponibilite et leur activite biologique. Egalement, ce processus
comment
permet de mieux «scientifiques autochtones» ont
d'inclusion saisir les
adapte leurs traditions pharmacologiques selon les changements survenus dans
leurs environnements biologique et culturel.
INTRODUCTION
The
information examine the factors that influence the adoption of Bidens
to
PALMER
No.
Vol.
14 24, 1
and Hawaiian pharmacopoeia. Previous
Plantago major into the traditional
pilosa
botanical, ethnobotanical, demographic, historical, and cultural research provides
background on the plants, as well as their ethnobotanical history in Hawaii. Per-
and
sonal interviews Hawaiians speak for themselves about the plants the
let
A
and pharmacological
processes of adoption substitution. literature search of
comparative
as well as antibacterial screening offers insight into the biolog-
tests
and an important
activity of the native introduced species, factor in the in-
ical
new
troduction and use of a plant species. Substitutions appear to be a result of
and
including empirical testing observation to deter-
a variety of cultural factors
and
mine other ecological considerations
biological activity, spiritual inspiration,
such as availability of plant material.
The Hawaiian Islands provides an excellent place for a study of the evolution
and medicine have
of a pharmacopoeia because both its flora traditional herbal
been well studied. also significant that, even after the introduction of the
It is
western medical svstem in Hawaii, the traditional healing system has continued
and even expanded
in
medicine system
(la'au lap
The
has adapted to the changing biological and cultural environment. substitution
of Bidens pilosa L. and Plantago major L. for native species exemplifies this process.
A
body has begun examine
growing of ethnobotanical research to the origin
some
and medicine. For example, recent research suggests
evolution of traditional
much
America had
indigenous groups in pre-European contact different
that
new
pharmacopoeias than they do now, and the introduction of diseases prompt-
new amount
ed the discovery of plant medicines in the relatively short of time
New
World The
the Europeans' arrival in the (Davis 1995). simultaneous
after
new and new seems
introduction of diseases plants to potentially result in the
expansion medicinal plant use through experimentation. Bennet and
of scientific
found 216 post-European introduced
Prance (2000) plants that are a part of the
indigenous pharmacopoeias of northern South America.
how
Other recent ethnobotanical studies illustrate indigenous people experi-
40%
ment with plants. For example, around of the plants in the local pharma-
unknown
were when
copoeia in 1995 to the sixteenth-century Portuguese
settlers
they arrived in the Madeiras; they were either introduced from Africa or the
Obon
Americas or were native to the islands (Rivera and 1995). Similarly, Paul
40%
found that of Haitian medicinal plants belong genera have
(2002) to that
similar medical uses in West Africa. This illustrates the tendency to adopt new
when
same genus
species of the confronted with changed
ecological conditions
brought about by migration.
Some
ethnobotanists focus on indigenous adaptations changed
to these en-
vironmental circumstances. They theorize about pharmacopoeia
the origins of a
and new
the experimental processes by which medicinal plants are selected. Moer-
man
hypothesizes used
(1998) that plants medicine
for in traditional society will
those that are available, perennial
Perennials
chemicals, making them more
medicinal The
eful as plants. other
characteristics
and
finding recognizing medicinal
plants. Johns
I
Spring/Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
2004
15
new
of medicinal plants focusing on the methods by which biological activity of
—
plants is discovered including taste, odor, empirical testing, and the observation
animals
of
Kuhn
method
operate in paradigms that differ from those of western science and these para-
digms, in turn, direct the hypotheses and methodologies of indigenous experi-
mentation (Cox 1995). Indigenous healers do, however, follow the meth-
scientific
making
od, observations, developing theories, and then using knowledge and
this
experience to predict future outcomes.
—
Origins and Evolution the Hawaiian Pharmacopoeia. In Polynesia, there some
of is
debate about the origin of herbal medicine Whistler has
its tradition. (1992) ar-
gued had
that Polynesians a limited herbal medicine tradition, especially in re-
He
medicines taken shows European
lation to internally. that prior to arrival,
Polynesians had few infectious diseases, and as a the medical system was
result,
focused around external ailments such as wounds, sprains, rashes, and infections.
More complex were with and used
diseases treated spiritual healing, the plants
in this process were "fetid herbal preparations applied externally or taken inter-
were have power and
nally that believed to the to repulse malicious spirits to
thereby heal' 7 (Whistler 1992:37-38). Consequently, the complex Hawaiian medical
system described by early native historians developed in the mid-nineteenth cen-
tury in response to the introduced epidemic diseases and contact with medicine
from European and other more developed herbal medical traditions, and "the
widespread use of medicines for internal ailments that so prevalent in Polynesia
is
medicine today appears to have developed after, and as a result of, contact with
the western world" (Whistler 1992:38).
Cox however, suggests that herbal medicine in Polynesia a conser-
(1991), is
most knowledge gained from a mentor and not through
vative tradition, in that is
new
experimentation (although he recognizes that plant remedies are sometimes
how
Cox arguments
acquired dreams). extends these to explain Polynesian
in
He
herbal medicine developed before western contact. discounts early missionary
histories relied on by Whistler and then supports this claim by noting the simi-
among
between medical traditions within Polynesia, the variation
larity different
European introduced system would look more
different family traditions (a lo-
endemic
cally homogenous), Polynesian belief in the nature of their healing tra-
ditions, and the fact that a majority of plants used medicinally in Polynesia are
not used in other parts of the world.
comment
Abbott and Shimazu that Hawaiians "have a tendency
(1985:220)
and remedies," which mainly consist of plants the Polyne-
true
to stick to tried
many
They
with them throughout the note however, that
sians carried Pacific.
and some
endemic plants are used, although less frequently, that plants intro-
duced European have been added. This supports Cox's notion
contact also
after
endemic Polynesian herbal medicine based on similarities between
of the origin of
Polynesian pharmacopoeias.
different
Many pharmacopoe-
of the processes observed in the evolution of traditional
The
world apply Hawaii. introduction of infectious
ias in other parts of the to
.
PALMER
No.
16 Vol. 24, 1
new
diseases and plants, the migration of other ethnic groups to Hawaii, and the
had an on pharma-
decreasing availability of native plant species effect the
all
many
copoeia. The Hawaiian pharmacopoeia, others, has had rapid devel-
like
opment and change number and used
in the species of plants in the relatively
short period since European contact. While this study does not directly address
Hawaiian pharmacopoeia nor importance Polynesian
the origin of the the of in-
troduced plants to does reveal some of the processes behind the introduction
it, it
new Hawaiian dynamic view
of plants to herbal medicine, presenting a of the
Hawaiian ethnomedical
evolution of the tradition.
Two new
methods for the discovery of medicinal plants are evident in Hawaii:
Handy
empirical practice and spiritual guidance. describes the origins of medic-
inal plant usage in Hawaii,
be anyone makes even study Hawaiian
will plain to that a superficial of
It
medicine that the system has arisen mainly through empirical practice.
. .
Many
Hawaiians you system has been
will that the established
tell
through a and error method, but that the original knowledge of the
trial
elements
dreams
method based on and
Empirical practice a research experimentation obser-
is
much
method. According
Larsen
vation, like the scientific to (1946:19), ancient
Hawaiians were "developing a system of medicine that was built upon observa-
tion, deduction, experimentation, and clinical trial/' but that "this system was lost
whole succumbed pompous European
as their culture to the tide of conquest"
From made
(Larsen the observations paper
1946:19). in this clear that the
it is
and
experimentation, observation, deduction in Hawaiian traditional medicine
European
continued long conquest.
after
While this study focuses on the empirical processes behind the discovery of
new
medicinal plants, the spiritual roots of Hawaiian healing cannot be
ignored:
Hawaiian
healing guidance an
in traditions, spiritual element
is essential in the
material. In the paradigm
ethnoscientific of
la'au
lap,
and
dreams,
visions, in
which they can begin new
the empirical testing process remedies
for
1995).
REVIEW OF THE ETHNOBOTANICAL AND
BOTANICAL
LITERATURE
spp—
The
Bidens nineteen endemic
Bidens species in Hawaii evolved through
from
adaptive radiation a single primal ancestor (Ganders Wagner
2000;
et
al.
1999). All the species are but most do
interfertile, not occur sympatrically (Gan-
modem
and
ders Nagata
1984). In times four species have been
introduced:
Bidens
pilosa L., B. cynapiifolia Kunth, B. alba D.C., and
(L.) B. gardneri Baker. Bidens
pilosa,
which
arrived sometime
first before
1845, is native to the tropical Americas (Wag-
ner was
et al. 1999). Bidens cynapiifolia first collected in 1929, almost seventy years
(Degener
later 3781 BISH),
1958
B. alba in (Pearsall s.n BISH), and
gard-
v lastly B.
(Hobdy
neri in 1983 1883 BISH). and
Bidens
alba B. pilosa are both widespread in
Spring/Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
2004
17
low
lying disturbed areas with becoming more abundant on
B. alba increasingly
Oahu
(Wagner
et 1999).
al.
made
Generally, a distinction is between native species of Bidens, called
ko'oko'olau or ko'olau, and the non-native B. pilosa, which is called kinehi. However,
there some ambiguity and can be used any
is still ko'oko'olau to refer to species
of Bidens. For example, Kaiahua identifies ko'oko'olau as B. pilosa. He also mentions
two
that there are kinds of ko'oko'olau, indicating that the term ko'oko'olau can be
used to refer to more than one species (Kaiahua 1997). Comparing the use of
and
native introduced Bidens species thus complicated because most make
is texts
A
no among
attempt to distinguish them. source ascribed to Kupunihana, written
around 1922, mentions three types of ko'oko'olau used as medicine for stomach
and numerous many
ailments other ailments, indicating that of the species within
the genus were recognized and used medicinally (Chun None
1998). of the early
texts, even into the early twentieth century, use the term kinehi (Chun 1994a,
Handy
Kaiakamanu and Akina Kamakau
1994b,
1998; et 1934; 1922;
al. 1964).
on Hawaiian
Nineteenth-century sources herbal medicine mention
that
asthma, and stomach
ko'oko'olau useful for throat troubles, stimulating the ap-
is
petite, general debility of the body, childhood ailments, as a purgative (with other
and (Chun Kaaiakamanu and Akina
plants), as a tonic 1994a; 1922). All of the
common
were
treatments that in precontact times are for ailments that are easily
recognizeable (sore throat, general debility, stomach troubles). Thus, following
Whistler's logic, they are more likely to have been treated with an herbal remedy
during precontact times.
The mention on Kamakau
earliest ko'oko'olau in the literature in 1866 in
is
(1964) and the 'Ahahui report in 1867 (Chun 1994a). After this, ko'oko'olau men-
is
tioned in a number of other studies on Hawaiian herbal medicines (Chun 1994a,
Handy Kaiakamanu and Akina Kamakau
Judd
1994b, 1998; et 1934; 1997; 1922;
al.
1964; McBride 1979), whereas kinehi is only mentioned in one published sources
(Kaiahua This suggests the native species were more widely used
1997). until
was used wide endemic
recently. Ko'oko'olau also to treat a variety of health con-
ditions, suggesting that the native plant has been used since before European
would appear from widespread use
contact. It the of B. pilosa, its early introduc-
tion, as well as the variety of Bidens species that are used, that B. pilosa has been
name
some
in the pharmacopoeia for time, even the kinehi appears only recently
if
ethnobotanical
in the literature.
—
The genus example
Plantago spp. Plantago a similar of substitution. Multiple
is
native and introduced species have been reported to have medicinal use. The
much
taxonomy of endemic plantains, however, simpler. There are three en-
is
P
and
demic species: Plantago hazvaiensis A. Gray, pachyphylla A. Gray, princeps
P.
Cham, and P and P appear be more
Schlechtend. paclryplxylla hcauaiensis to closely
related to each other than to P princeps (Wagner et al. 1999). There are five intro-
P
duced including Plantago major and major widespread
species, lanceolata.
P. is
Hawaiian and was 1864-1865 (Mann and
throughout the Islands collected in
first
Brigham P was on Kauai 1895
423, BISH). lanceolata first collected in (Heller 2457,
The more introduced and widely
BISH). other alien species are recently less dis-
(Wagner
tributed et 1999).
al.
PALMER
No.
18 Vol. 24,
1
name The
The Hawaiian generic for Plantago native species are
is laitkahi.
found mountains.
referred to as laukahi kuahhui, indicating that they are in the
The have names between them, manene
native species also other that differentiate
P and (Wagner
for pachyplrylla ale for P. princes et al. 1999).
,
Laukahi used as a purge for mother and babies, to draw the pus out of sores
is
and and and (Chun Other
cure the diseases of 1994b, 1998)
boils, to pa'ao'ao
'ea
and
authors mention that laukahi used as a tonic, a laxative, a poultice for boils
is
and urinary kidney problems, pul-
sores, as a tea for diabetes, tract infections,
Handy
monary disease, and high blood pressure (Gross 1998; et 1934; Kaiahua
al.
1997; Krauss 1979; Nagata 1970; Whistler 1992). Interestingly laukahi is used to
more modern
ancient Hawaiian disease categories as well as
treat {pa'ao'ao) ail-
and
ments (diabetes, high blood pressure) and external, internal, 'spiritual' dis-
new
new
adopted
ease categories, suggesting that plants are not just to treat
diseases.
some
There disagreement
is
Krauss
remedies.
introduced
Whistler
Several authors have reported that these nati
and
introduced
medicinal species that the
presuma
more
commonly used Hawaiian
the only species in medicine. (Whistler 1992:
188)
Given the widespread medicinal use of Plantago throughout the world,
this
is
Bayon Henderson Ramos
plausible (Basaran 1996; 2000; 1994; Johnson 1999;
1996).
A
book on Hawaiian who
herbal medicine mentions
children's that the Japanese,
migrated to Hawaii in large numbers, also use Plantago major in a similar manner
(Corum Most who
to the Hawaiians 1985). of the immigrants came Hawaii
to
and
arrived well before 1922 (Juvik Juvik 1998), the date of the study that
first
and
mentions
describes the medicinal use
specifically of laukahi (clearly
lauli'i
P
(Kaaiakamanu and Akina
identifying major) 1922). This allows time
for signif-
between Hawaiians and new
icant interaction immigrants, supportine
Whistler's
claim
in
found Kamakau's
to laukahi is in writing about the people of old Hawaii. This
work was
published in a Hawaiian language newspaper from
series 1866-1871,
around the time the Chinese immigrated but had moved
first before thev throueh-
the other early reference found group
is in a of interviews
ty of healers 1867
in as part of the establishment
of a r
(Chun
rganization
1994a). Five different healers usee
all
many
One
kahi in different ways. healer, Pupuka, even mentions
specifically the
use
of laukahi kuahiwi, referring one
to of the native These seem
species. sources
to confirm the early widespread use
of Plantago, definitely including the native
and P
species possibly The number
major. of different neonlp tiaiiw Plantnaa Qnn
/Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
Spring 2004
19
from
indicate a switch
spp. to the introduced Plantago major.
mention
use of the native Plantago species besides Krauss (1979, 1993, 2001) and Gross
(who mention being replaced with not contemporary
(1998) it P. major, its use.
Whenever
laukahi subsequently mentioned in research on Hawaiian herbal med-
is
Handy
icine it is always identified as P. major (Gross 1998; et al. 1934; Kaiahua
Kaiakamanu and Akina Krauss Nagata McBride
1997; 1922; 1979; 1970; 1979;
Whistler Bushnell suggest used
1992). et (1950) that lanceolata also as
al. P. is
—
medicine, however, the source material he Kaaiakamanu and Akina
cites
—
(1922) —ddooeess nnoott ssuuppppoorrtt tthhiiss aasssseerrttiioonn.. This information, plus the conspicuous
P
absence of current references to all other Plantago spp., strongly suggests that
member
major currently the only of genus used in the Hawaiian pharmacopoeia
is
and
probably replaced the use of the native species.
it
—
Antibacterial Assays Bidens and Plantago The widespread use of both
for spp. spp.
Bidens spp. and Plantago spp. in traditional medicine has stimulated a significant
amount of research on their biological activity (Table These studies suggest a
1).
broad range of healing affects from both Bidens and Plantago species. Bidens has
been screened for antibacterial activity, a treatment for liver diseases, and an anti-
ulcer treatment; Plantago spp. has been tested for anti-inflammatory and wound-
healing properties. Thus, the biological activity of both Bidens spp. and Plantago
spp. consistent with their uses in the Hawaiian pharmacopoeia, suggesting that
is
Hawaiian healers possessed a sophisticated knowledge of biological activity.
The due compounds:
biological activity of Bidens is to large classes of poly-
acetylenes and flavonoids. 1 Marchant et (1984) researched polyacetylene con-
al.
tent in Hawaiian Bidens species and found a surprising array of different mole-
While contained polyacetylenes
cules in different species. all in their roots, thir-
any
teen species did not contain polyacetylenes in their leaves, suggesting highly
The
variable antibacterial activity within the native Bidens species. native species
and
Bidens macrocarpa (A. Gray) Sherff, Bidens populifolia Sherff, Bidens campylotheca
some which
Schultz-Bip. contained level of polyacetylenes in their leaves, in-
all
(Marchant
have antimicrobial properties
dicates that the leaves et 1984).
al.
METHODOLOGY
—
were conducted with both and
Semi-structured interviews specialists
Interviews.
was and
2 The purpose of the research explained verbal consent
nonspecialists.
knowledge
The were questioned about both
granted. participants their of intro-
duced and native species of Bidens and Plantago and their uses and relative effec-
one
tiveness, as well as possible reasons for the preference of species over another.
When shown
possible, the plants were examined in the field or to the participants.
In other cases, the plants were described with salient features to distinguish be-
had some
tween species. All the species in question visible, easily distinguishable
narrow rounded
features yellow versus white flowers, versus leaves).
(e.g.,
—
Antibacterial Assays. The selection the plants species for the antibacterial assays
The and
was dependent on locally available species. introduced B. pilosa, major,
P.
N)
—
A
TABLE summary some
of of the pharmacological done on and spp
1. studies biological activity of Bidens spp. Plantago
Study
riant
Results
— —
B. pilosa Bushnell et al. 1950 Antibacterial moderately effective; anti-enteric pathogens moderately effective
Wat
et al. 1979 Polyacetelynes are phototoxic to bacteria and fungi
N'Dounga
1983
et al. Antibacterial activity
Machado
1988
et
al. Antiparasitic activity
Geissberger 1991
et Antihypertensive
al.
Sarg 1991
et
al. Anti-ulcer
activity
Chih
1995
et Anti-inflammatory
al.
DNA
Gupta
1996 Tumor
et shrimp
al. inhibition; cytotoxicity; intercalation; brine toxicity
1996
Jager et
al. Prostaglandin-synthesis inhibition
Chih
1996
et al. Protect liver injuries from various hepatotoxins and have antihepatic agents
Alvarez 1996
et al. Antimicrobial; cytotoxic; insecticidal
>
Rabe and Van
Staden 1997
Antibacterial
activity
Brandao
1997
et Antimalarial
al.
en
Pereira et 1999 Immunosuppressant
al.
activity
Dimo
1999
et Antimicrobial
al.
activity
Alvarez 1999
et al. Antimicrobial; not antidiabetic
Tan
2000
et
al. Possible anti-ulcer
effects
Ubillas et 2000 Antihyperglycemic
al.
Dimo
2001
et Hypotensive
al. effect
Khan
2001
et Antimicrobial
al.
Chang
2001
et al. Possible treatment for leukemia
campy Redl 1994
B. loDieca et Anti-inflammatory
al. active polyacetylenes
subaltcrnans Ortega 1998
B. et Anti-inflammatory
al.
B. aurea La Case et 1995 Anti-ulcer agent <
al.
o
Martin
al 1996
et Anti-ulcer agent
Lopez
B. alba et 2001 Does not modify
al. insulin or glucose
levels
Z
o
C/5
5'
CTQ
C
3
3
K>
4-
1—
TABLE
(continued)
Study
Plant Results
— —
major BushneU et aL 1950 Antibacterial moderately effective; anti-enteric pathogens slightly effective
P.
Ravn and Brimer 198> Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity
No
Dat 1992
al diuretic activity
et
Component
Guillen et 1997 plantanajoside has possible antibacterial effects
al.
COX-2 enzyme
Ringborn 1998 Anti-inflammatory; anti-ulcer by inhibition of
et
al.
wound
Michaelson et al. 2000 Possible healing effects
PMI
Hetland 2000 Polysaccharide fraction protects against pneumococcal infection
et
al.
Ikawati 2001 Inhibited IgE-dependent histamine; possible asthma or allergenic disease uses
et al.
R Marchesan 1998 Anti-inflammatory
lanceolata et
al.
Deliorman 1999 Hepatoprotective
et effects
al.
Schmidgall et 2000 Moderate activity on treatment of irritated buccal membranes.
al.
Tezuka 2001 Anti-inflammatory
asiatica et al.
P.
N>
— —
PALMER
No.
22 Vol.
24,
1
were readily obtained from the lawns on the Brigham Young Univer-
lanceolata
P.
campus P summit
sity-Hawaii while pachyphylla required long hike to the of the
many
and
Ko'olaus. Similarly, of the native Bidens species are rare occur in small,
localized populations (Wagner et 1999) although they are generally more com-
al.
mon
than the Plantago species. Voucher specimens were collected. 3
For Plantago spp. the antibacterial screening portion of this study includes
was
only one native species, padxyphylla unable to collect Plantago hawaiensis
P. (I
and P princeps because they are endangered species and have very limited
distri-
P P
and and (Wagner
butions), the introduced species of major lanceolata et
al.
endemic
1999). For Bidens spp., the three native species to the northeastern section
Mountains and
of the Ko'olau Bidens populifolia, B. macrocarpa, B. campyloptheca
common
were screened along with the two most introduced species
B. pilosa
and
B. alba.
An
method (Ingraham and Ingraham was used
agar diffusion 2000) to ana-
comparison with
Bidens in the intro
comparison with
hyphylla in the intro
duced and
major Plantago
lanceolata.
P.
and
against Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia
common
These microorganisms were used because they are skin
microorganisms and correspond with Hawaiian
tract uses of Bidens
They examples Gram-negative and
also offer of Gram-positive
3pp.
1
common
organisms, allowing comparison with
are test for other
a
studies. (Bushnell et 1950; Locher et 1995).
al. al.
plant material including leaves and stems was blended and scmee
i
One
more
or
amount
depending on
the
bacterial assays as well as separate voucher specimen
No
from same was
llected the site. solvent added. Plant extract ml)
(0.75
3-mm
a diameter paper The paper was
lied to disk. disk placed in a petri
Mueller-Hinton agar inoculated with
either the (Migula
Esclierichia
coli
Chalmers
1919 or Staphylococcus aureus Rosenbach Each
1884.
contained
commercially prepared an
tibiotic disk (Erythromycin) and a blank paper disk. Five plates were prepared
for each plant to be tested. The petri dishes were incubated for 24 hours 37.5°C
at
The zone of inhibition was then measured
in millimeters.
It is important to note that an agar diffusion method does not a complete
offer
picture of the multiplicity of possible medicinal
effects of the plants such
as the
compound
potential interactions of plant
in a living system or in conjunction with
some
com
insight into the
activity against
AND
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
Interviews.— Personal
interviews, including those with both and
healers nonheal
provided most
ers, the important
source
of information
regarding
the introduc
armacopoeia
wounds,
heal sunburns