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W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. • www.NortonEbooks.com PHYSICS Hans C. Ohanian, John T. Markert THIRD EDITION FOR ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS Volume Two Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page vi PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] Physics for Engineers and Scientists Third Edition W • W • NORTON & COMPANY B NEW YORK • LONDON Volume 2 (Chapters 22–36) ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM WAVES AND OPTICS THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:42 AM Page i PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page ii PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] Physics for Engineers and Scientists Third Edition H A N S C . O H A N I A N , U N I V E R S I T Y O F V E R M O N T J O H N T. M A R K E R T, U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E X A S A T A U S T I N W • W • NORTON & COMPANY B NEW YORK • LONDON Volume 2 (Chapters 22–36) ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM WAVES AND OPTICS THE THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page iii PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] To Susan Ohanian, writer, who gently tried to teach me some of her craft.—H.C.O. To Frank D. Markert, a printer by trade; to Christiana Park, for her thirst for new knowledge; and to Erin, Ryan, Sean, and Gwen, for their wonder and clarity.—J.T.M. Copyright © 2007 by W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Third Edition Composition: Techbooks Manufacturing: RR Donnelley & Sons Company Editor: Leo A. W. Wiegman Media Editor: April E. Lange Director of Manufacturing—College: Roy Tedoff Senior Project Editor: Christopher Granville Photo Researcher: Kelly Mitchell Editorial Assistant: Lisa Rand, Sarah L. Mann Copy Editor: Richard K. Mickey Book designer: Sandy Watanabe Layout artist: Paul Lacy Illustration Studio: Penumbra Design, Inc. Cover Illustration: John Belcher, inter alia. Cover Design: Joan Greenfield Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for. ISBN 978-0-393-11102-6 (ebook) W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110 www.wwnorton.com W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT 1234567890 W.W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union.The Nortons soon expanded their program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts— were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees. Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page iv PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] Brief Contents PREFACE xiii OWNER’S MANUAL xxv PRELUDE: THE WORLD OF PHYSICS xxxv PART I MOTION, FORCE, AND ENERGY 1 1. SPACE, TIME, AND MASS 2 2. MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE 28 3. VECTORS 69 4. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS 94 5. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 130 6. FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS 173 7. WORK AND ENERGY 204 8. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 235 9. GRAVITATION 271 10. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES 305 11. COLLISIONS 338 12. ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY 365 13. DYNAMICS OF A RIGID BODY 394 14. STATICS AND ELASTICITY 429 PART II OSCILLATIONS, WAVES, AND FLUIDS 466 15. OSCILLATIONS 468 16. WAVES 507 17. SOUND 536 18. FLUID MECHANICS 565 PART III TEMPERATURE, HEAT, AND THERMODYNAMICS 600 19. THE IDEAL GAS 602 20. HEAT 628 21. THERMODYNAMICS 661 v PART IV ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 692 22. ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC CHARGE 694 23. THE ELECTRIC FIELD 721 24. GAUSS’ LAW 756 25. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND ENERGY 789 26. CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS 828 27. CURRENTS AND OHM’S LAW 858 28. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS 887 29. MAGNETIC FORCE AND FIELD 926 30. CHARGES AND CURRENTS IN MAGNETIC FIELDS 964 31. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 993 32. ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS 1030 PART V WAVES AND OPTICS 1068 33. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 1070 34. REFLECTION, REFRACTION, AND OPTICS 1111 35. INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION 1168 PART VI RELATIVITY, QUANTA, AND PARTICLES 1214 36. THE THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY 1216 37. QUANTA OF LIGHT 1254 38. SPECTRAL LINES, BOHR’S THEORY, AND QUANTUM MECHANICS 1286 39. QUANTUM STRUCTURE OF ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND SOLIDS 1320 40. NUCLEI 1354 41. ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND COSMOLOGY 1396 APPENDICES A-1 Chapters 1–21 appear in Volume 1; Chapters 22–36 appear in Volume 2; Chapters 36–41 appear in Volume 3. Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page v PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page vi PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] Table of Contents PREFACE xiii OWNER’S MANUAL xxv PRELUDE: THE WORLD OF PHYSICS xxxv PART I MOTION, FORCE, AND ENERGY 1 1. SPACE, TIME, AND MASS 2 1.1 Coordinates and Reference Frames 3 1.2 The Unit of Length 5 1.3 The Unit of Time 9 1.4 The Unit of Mass 11 1.5 Derived Units 13 1.6 Significant Figures; Consistency of Units and Conversion of Units 14 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 20 2. MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE 28 2.1 Average Speed 29 2.2 Average Velocity for Motion along a Straight Line 32 2.3 Instantaneous Velocity 35 2.4 Acceleration 39 2.5 Motion with Constant Acceleration 42 2.6 The Acceleration of Free Fall 49 2.7* Integration of the Equations of Motion 54 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 57 3. VECTORS 69 3.1 The Displacement Vector and Other Vectors 70 3.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction 72 3.3 The Position Vector; Components of a Vector 76 3.4 Vector Multiplication 81 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 87 4. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS 94 4.1 Components of Velocity and Acceleration 95 4.2 The Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 98 4.3 Motion with Constant Acceleration 102 4.4 The Motion of Projectiles 104 4.5 Uniform Circular Motion 112 4.6 The Relativity of Motion and the Addition of Velocities 115 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 118 5. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 130 5.1 Newton’s First Law 131 5.2 Newton’s Second Law 133 5.3 The Combination of Forces 138 5.4 Weight; Contact Force and Normal Force 141 5.5 Newton’s Third Law 144 5.6 Motion with a Constant Force 151 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 159 6. FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS 173 6.1 Friction 174 6.2 Restoring Force of a Spring; Hooke’s Law 182 6.3 Force for Uniform Circular Motion 184 6.4* The Four Fundamental Forces 191 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 192 vii Chapters 1–21 appear in Volume 1; Chapters 22–36 appear in Volume 2; and Chapters 36–41 appear in Volume 3. Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page vii PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] 7. WORK AND ENERGY 204 7.1 Work 205 7.2 Work for a Variable Force 211 7.3 Kinetic Energy 214 7.4 Gravitational Potential Energy 218 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 224 8. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 235 8.1 Potential Energy of a Conservative Force 236 8.2 The Curve of Potential Energy 244 8.3 Other Forms of Energy 248 8.4* Mass and Energy 251 8.5 Power 253 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 259 9. GRAVITATION 271 9.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 272 9.2 The Measurement of G 277 9.3 Circular Orbits 278 9.4 Elliptical Orbits; Kepler’s Laws 282 9.5 Energy in Orbital Motion 288 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 293 10. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES 305 10.1 Momentum 306 10.2 Center of Mass 313 10.3 The Motion of the Center of Mass 323 10.4 Energy of a System of Particles 327 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 328 11. COLLISIONS 338 11.1 Impulsive Forces 339 11.2 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension 344 11.3 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension 348 11.4* Collisions in Two and Three Dimensions 351 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 354 12. ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY 365 12.1 Motion of a Rigid Body 366 12.2 Rotation about a Fixed Axis 367 12.3 Motion with Constant Angular Acceleration 374 12.4* Motion with Time-Dependent Angular Acceleration 376 12.5 Kinetic Energy of Rotation; Moment of Inertia 378 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 384 13. DYNAMICS OF A RIGID BODY 394 13.1 Work, Energy, and Power in Rotational Motion; Torque 395 13.2 The Equation of Rotational Motion 399 13.3 Angular Momentum and its Conservation 406 13.4* Torque and Angular Momentum as Vectors 410 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 417 14. STATICS AND ELASTICITY 429 14.1 Statics of Rigid Bodies 430 14.2 Examples of Static Equilibrium 433 14.3 Levers and Pulleys 441 14.4 Elasticity of Materials 445 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 450 PART II OSCILLATIONS, WAVES, AND FLUIDS 466 15. OSCILLATIONS 468 15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 469 15.2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 476 15.3 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 480 15.4 The Simple Pendulum 484 15.5* Damped Oscillations and Forced Oscillations 488 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 494 16. WAVES 507 16.1 Transverse and Longitudinal Wave Motion 508 16.2 Periodic Waves 509 viii CONTENTS Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page viii PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] 16.3 The Superposition of Waves 516 16.4 Standing Waves 520 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 524 17. SOUND 536 17.1 Sound Waves in Air 538 17.2 Intensity of Sound 540 17.3 The Speed of Sound; Standing Waves 543 17.4 The Doppler Effect 574 17.5* Diffraction 553 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 555 18. FLUID MECHANICS 565 18.1 Density and Flow Velocity 567 18.2 Incompressible Steady Flow; Streamlines 569 18.3 Pressure 573 18.4 Pressure in a Static Fluid 575 18.5 Archimedes’ Principle 580 18.6 Fluid Dynamics; Bernoulli’s Equation 582 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 587 PART III TEMPERATURE, HEAT, AND THERMODYNAMICS 600 19. THE IDEAL GAS 602 19.1 The Ideal-Gas Law 603 19.2 The Temperature Scale 609 19.3 Kinetic Pressure 613 19.4 The Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas 616 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 619 20. HEAT 628 20.1 Heat as a Form of Energy Transfer 629 20.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 633 20.3 Thermal Conduction 638 20.4 Changes of State 642 20.5 The Specific Heat of a Gas 644 20.6* Adiabatic Expansion of a Gas 647 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 650 21. THERMODYNAMICS 661 21.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 663 21.2 Heat Engines; The Carnot Engine 665 21.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 675 21.4 Entropy 677 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 681 PART IV ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 692 22. ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC CHARGE 694 22.1 The Electrostatic Force 695 22.2 Coulomb’s Law 698 22.3 The Superposition of Electrical Forces 703 22.4 Charge Quantization and Charge Conservation 706 22.5 Conductors and Insulators; Charging by Friction or by Induction 708 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 712 23. THE ELECTRIC FIELD 721 23.1 The Electric Field of Point Charges 722 23.2 The Electric Field of Continuous Charge Distributions 729 23.3 Lines of Electric Field 736 23.4 Motion in a Uniform Electric Field 740 23.5 Electric Dipole in an Electric Field 742 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 745 24. GAUSS’ LAW 756 24.1 Electric Flux 757 24.2 Gauss’ Law 762 24.3 Applications of Gauss’ Law 763 24.4 Superposition of Electric Fields 772 24.5 Conductors and Electric Fields 774 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 778 25. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND ENERGY 789 25.1 The Electrostatic Potential 790 25.2 Calculation of the Potential from the Field 798 CONTENTS ix Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page ix PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] 30. CHARGES AND CURRENTS IN MAGNETIC FIELDS 964 30.1 Circular Motion in a Uniform Magnetic Field 965 30.2 Force on a Wire 969 30.3 Torque on a Loop 972 30.4 Magnetism in Materials 976 30.5* The Hall Effect 980 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 984 31. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 993 31.1 Motional EMF 994 31.2 Faraday’s Law 997 31.3 Some Examples; Lenz’ Law 1001 31.4 Inductance 1008 31.5 Magnetic Energy 1013 31.6* The RL Circuit 1015 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1018 32. ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS* 1030 32.1 Resistor Circuit 1013 32.2 Capacitor Circuit 1035 32.3 Inductor Circuit 1038 32.4* Freely Oscillating LC and RLC Circuits 1041 32.5* Series Circuits with Alternating EMF 1046 32.6 The Transformer 1053 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1057 PART V WAVES AND OPTICS 1068 33. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 1070 33.1 Induction of Magnetic Fields; Maxwell’s Equations 1071 33.2* The Electromagnetic Wave Pulse 1075 33.3 Plane Waves; Polarization 1079 33.4 The Generation of Electromagnetic Waves 1088 33.5 Energy of a Wave 1092 33.6* The Wave Equation 1096 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1099 x CONTENTS 25.3 Potential in Conductors 803 25.4 Calculation of the Field from the Potential 806 25.5 Energy of Systems of Charges 811 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 816 26. CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS 828 26.1 Capacitance 829 26.2 Capacitors in Combination 834 26.3 Dielectrics 838 26.4 Energy in Capacitors 844 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 847 27. CURRENTS AND OHM’S LAW 858 27.1 Electric Current 859 27.2 Resistance and Ohm’s Law 863 27.3 Resistivity of Materials 868 27.4 Resistances in Combination 872 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 878 28. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS 887 28.1 Electromotive Force 888 28.2 Sources of Electromotive Force 890 28.3 Single-Loop Circuits 893 28.4 Multi-Loop Circuits 897 28.5 Energy in Circuits; Joule Heat 901 28.6* Electrical Measurements 903 28.7* The RC Circuit 907 28.8* The Hazards of Electric Currents 913 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 914 29. MAGNETIC FORCE AND FIELD 926 29.1 The Magnetic Force 928 29.2 The Magnetic Field 931 29.3 Ampére’s Law 938 29.4 Solenoids and Magnets 943 29.5 The Biot-Savart Law 948 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 951 Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page x PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] 34. REFLECTION, REFRACTION, AND OPTICS 1111 34.1 Huygens’ Construction 1113 34.2 Reflection 1114 34.3 Refraction 1117 34.4 Spherical Mirrors 1128 34.5 Thin Lenses 1135 34.6* Optical Instruments 1144 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1152 35. INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION 1168 35.1 Thin Films 1169 35.2* The Michelson Interferometer 1174 35.3 Interference from Two Slits 1177 35.4 Interference from Multiple Slits 1183 35.5 Diffraction by a Single Slit 1190 35.6 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture; Rayleigh’s Criterion 1196 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1199 PART VI RELATIVITY, QUANTA, AND PARTICLES 1214 36. THE THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY 1216 36.1 The Speed of Light; the Ether 1218 36.2 Einstein’s Principle of Relativity 1220 36.3 Time Dilation 1224 36.4 Length Contraction 1230 36.5 The Lorentz Transformations and the Combination of Velocities 1232 36.6 Relativistic Momentum and Energy 1239 36.7* Mass and Energy 1242 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1244 37. QUANTA OF LIGHT 1254 37.1 Blackbody Radiation 1255 37.2 Energy Quanta 1258 37.3 Photons and the Photoelectric Effect 1264 37.4 The Compton Effect 1269 37.5 X Rays 1273 37.6 Wave vs. Particle 1276 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1279 CONTENTS xi 38. SPECTRAL LINES, BOHR’S THEORY, AND QUANTUM MECHANICS 1286 38.1 Spectral Lines 1287 38.2 Spectral Series of Hydrogen 1291 38.3 The Nuclear Atom 1293 38.4 Bohr’s Theory 1295 38.5 Quantum Mechanics; The Schrödinger Equation 1302 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1312 39. QUANTUM STRUCTURE OF ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND SOLIDS 1320 39.1 Principal, Orbital, and Magnetic Quantum Numbers; Spin 1321 39.2 The Exclusion Principle and the Structure of Atoms 1328 39.3* Energy Levels in Molecules 1333 39.4 Energy Bands in Solids 1336 39.5 Semiconductor Devices 1340 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1345 40. NUCLEI 1354 40.1 Isotopes 1355 40.2 The Strong Force and the Nuclear Binding Energy 1359 40.3 Radioactivity 1365 40.4 The Law of Radioactive Decay 1372 40.5 Fission 1377 40.6* Nuclear Bombs and Nuclear Reactors 1379 40.7 Fusion 1384 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1386 41. ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND COSMOLOGY 1396 41.1 The Tools of High-Energy Physics 1397 41.2 The Multitude of Particles 1403 41.3 Interactions and Conservation Laws 1405 41.4 Fields and Quanta 1409 41.5 Quarks 1412 41.6 Cosmology 1416 SUMMARY / QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS / REVIEW PROBLEMS / ANSWERS TO CHECKUPS 1424 Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page xi PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] APPENDIX 6: THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) A-21 A6.1 Base Units A-21 A6.2 Derived Units A-23 A6.3 Prefixes A-23 APPENDIX 7: BEST VALUES OF FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS A-23 APPENDIX 8: CONVERSION FACTORS A-26 APPENDIX 9: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND CHEMICAL ELEMENTS A-31 APPENDIX 10: FORMULA SHEETS A-33 Chapters 1–21 A-33 Chapters 22–41 A-34 APPENDIX 11: ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS AND REVIEW PROBLEMS A-35 PHOTO CREDITS A-49 INDEX A-53 xii CONTENTS APPENDICES APPENDIX 1: GREEK ALPHABET A-1 APPENDIX 2: MATHEMATICS REVIEW A-1 A2.1 Symbols A-1 A2.2 Powers and Roots A-1 A2.3 Arithmetic in Scientific Notation A-2 A2.4 Algebra A-3 A2.5 Equations with Two Unknowns A-5 A2.6 The Quadratic Formula A-5 A2.7 Logarithms and the Exponential Function A-5 APPENDIX 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY REVIEW A-7 A3.1 Perimeters, Areas, and Volumes A-7 A3.2 Angles A-7 A3.3 The Trigonometric Functions A-8 A3.4 The Trigonometric Identities A-9 A3.5 The Laws of Cosines and Sines A-10 APPENDIX 4: CALCULUS REVIEW A-10 A4.1 Derivatives A-10 A4.2 Important Rules for Differentiation A-11 A4.3 Integrals A-12 A4.4 Important Rules for Integration A-15 A4.5 The Taylor Series A-18 A4.6 Some Approximations A-18 APPENDIX 5: PROPAGATING UNCERTAINTIES A-19 Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:43 AM Page xii PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK] Preface Our aim in Physics for Engineers and Scientists, Third Edition, is to present a modern view of classical mechanics and electromagnetism, including some optics and quantum physics.We also want to offer students a glimpse of the practical applications of physics in science, engineering, and everyday life. The book and its learning package emerged from a collaborative effort that began more than six years ago. We adapted the core of Ohanian’s earlier Physics (Second Edition, 1989) and combined it with relevant findings from recent physics education research on how students learn most effectively. The result is a text that presents a clear, uncluttered explication of the core concepts in physics, well suited to the needs of undergraduate engineering and science students. Organization of Topics The 41 chapters of the book cover the essential topics of introductory physics: mechanics of particles, rigid bodies, and fluids; oscillations, wave motion, heat and thermodynamics; electricity and magnetism; optics; special relativity; and atomic and subatomic physics. Our arrangement and treatment of topics are fairly traditional with a few delib- erate distinctions. We introduce the principle of superposition of forces early in Chapter 5 on Newton’s laws of motion, and we give the students considerable expo- sure to the vector superposition of gravitational forces in Chapter 9. This leaves the students well prepared for the later application of vector superposition of electric and magnetic forces generated by charge or current distributions. We place gravitation in Chapter 9 immediately after the chapters on work and energy, because we regard gravitation as a direct application of these concepts (instructors who prefer to post- pone gravitation can, of course, do so). We introduce forces on stationary electric charges in a detailed, complete exposition in Chapter 22, before proceeding to the less obvious concept of the electric field in Chapter 23. We start the study of magnetism in Chapter 29 with the force on a moving charged particle near a current, instead of the more common practice of starting with a postulate about the magnetic field in the abstract. With our approach, the observed magnetic forces on moving charges lead naturally to the magnetic field, and this progression from magnetic force to Physics_Vol-2-FM.qxd 07/02/2007 7:44 AM Page xiii PMAC-291 27B:GK023:Chapters:FM-Vol2: TechBooks [PPG -QUARK]