Physical and Chemical Processes in the Aquatic Environment

449 Pages·2014·3.58 MB·English

by  Erik R. Christensen

PHYSICAL
AND CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
IN THE AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENT

PHYSICAL
AND CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
IN THE AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENT
ERIKR.CHRISTENSEN
DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering
UniversityofWisconsin–Milwaukee
ANLI
SchoolofPublicHealth
UniversityofIllinoisatChicago
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Christensen,ErikR.,1943-
Physicalandchemicalprocessesintheaquaticenvironment/ErikR.Christensen,PhD,
distinguishedprofessoremeritus,DepartmentofCivilEngineeringandMechanics,Universityof
Wisconsin–Milwaukee,AnLi,PhD,professor,SchoolofPublicHealth,UniversityofIllinoisat
Chicago.
pagescm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-118-11176-5(cloth)
1.Water–Pollution.2.Waterchemistry.I.Li,An,1952-II.Title.
TD420.C5252014
628.1–dc23
2014007294
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
ISBN:9781118111765
10987654321
CONTENTS
Preface xi
1 TRANSPORTOFPOLLUTANTS 1
1.1 Introduction, 1
1.2 Advection–DiffusionEquationwithReaction, 2
1.3 Steady-StateMixinginEstuaries, 4
1.3.1 DeterminationofDiffusivityDfromSalinity
Measurements, 5
1.3.2 PollutantPredictionforanEstuarywithUniform
Discharge, 5
1.3.3 SalinityinanInfiniteEstuarywithaLargeFreshwater
Discharge, 8
1.3.4 ConservativePollutantPredictionforanInfiniteEstuary
withaLargeFreshwaterDischarge, 9
1.4 Time-DependentMixinginRiversandSoilSystems, 10
1.5 VerticalMixing, 14
1.5.1 TheRadonMethod, 16
1.5.2 TheTritium–helium-3Method, 17
1.5.3 EvaluationofMixingBasedonDensityGradients, 19
1.6 HydrodynamicModels, 20
1.7 GroundwaterPlumes, 22
1.8 SedimentMixing, 23
References, 25
v
vi CONTENTS
2 SEDIMENTATIONPROCESSES 28
2.1 Introduction, 28
2.2 210PbDatingofSediments, 29
2.2.1 Measurementof210PbActivity, 30
2.2.2 210PbActivityProfiles, 33
2.3 137Csand239+240PuDatingofSediments, 38
2.4 DatedRecordsofMetalsandOrganicPollutants, 42
2.5 DeconvolutionofSedimentaryRecords, 49
2.6 ChemicalandBiologicalDegradation, 55
2.7 SedimentsasaSourceofPollutants, 56
2.7.1 Phosphorus, 57
2.7.2 Metals, 57
2.7.3 Acid-volatileSulfides, 58
2.7.4 Organics, 59
References, 60
3 ATMOSPHERICINTERACTIONS 65
3.1 Introduction, 65
3.2 AtmosphericDepositionProcesses, 66
3.2.1 Gaseousvs.ParticulateChemicalsintheAtmosphere, 66
3.2.2 DryDepositionwithAerosols, 68
3.2.3 WetDeposition, 75
3.2.4 GasExchange, 78
3.3 DepositionandGasExchangeofOrganicContaminants, 84
3.4 MarineandFreshwaterMicrolayers, 87
3.5 CaseStudy:EmissionofVOCsfromWastewaterTreatmentPlants, 89
3.6 TheFugacityModel, 93
3.6.1 FugacityDefinitionsandBasicEquations, 94
3.6.2 LevelsofComplexity, 101
3.6.3 ExampleCalculations – Chlorobenzene, 103
References, 108
4 WATERCHEMISTRY 113
4.1 Introduction, 113
4.2 CarbonateandAlkalinity, 115
4.2.1 DissolvedCO andCarbonateSpeciationinWater, 115
2
4.2.2 SolvingEquilibriumpH, 117
4.2.3 Alkalinity, 120
4.2.4 BufferIndex, 124
4.3 SulfurChemistry, 127
4.3.1 SulfurRedoxReactionsinWater, 128
4.3.2 SulfurinSediment, 132
CONTENTS vii
4.3.3 AcidRain, 133
4.4 ImpactofGlobalWarmingonNaturalWaters, 135
References, 136
5 NUTRIENTS 138
5.1 Introduction, 138
5.2 InputofNutrientsandAcidity, 140
5.3 Eutrophication, 143
5.3.1 EutrophicationControl, 148
5.3.2 HarmfulAlgalBlooms, 149
5.3.3 Cladophora, 155
5.4 Nitrogen, 156
5.4.1 TheNitrogenCycle, 156
5.4.2 NitrificationandDenitrification, 159
5.4.3 NRemoval, 166
5.5 Phosphorus, 169
5.5.1 ThePhosphorusCycle, 169
5.5.2 PRemoval, 170
5.5.3 CaseStudy:PhosphorusfromWastewaterTreatment,
Stormwater,andRiversinMilwaukee,Wisconsin, 172
5.6 VitaminsandTraceMetals, 173
References, 180
6 METALS 185
6.1 Introduction, 185
6.2 Trends,Measurement,andToxicity, 186
6.3 MajorSourcesandReactionsofMetalsinWater, 193
6.3.1 AtmosphericDepositionofMetals, 193
6.3.2 Hydration,Hydrolysis,andComplexFormation, 196
6.3.3 DissolutionofMetalsfromMinerals, 201
6.4 BehaviorofSelectedMetalsinWater, 203
6.4.1 Mercury, 203
6.4.2 ZincandCadmium, 204
6.4.3 Arsenic, 207
6.5 Zero-ValentIroninRemediationofContaminatedWater, 209
6.5.1 DechlorinationofChlorinatedHydrocarbons, 209
6.5.2 ReductionofUraniumCarbonate,Chromate,
andArsenate, 214
References, 215
7 ORGANICPOLLUTANTS 220
7.1 Introduction, 220
viii CONTENTS
7.2 ImportantOrganicPollutantGroups, 221
7.2.1 PetrochemicalsandIndustrialSolvents, 221
7.2.2 PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons(PAHs), 223
7.2.3 PolychlorinatedBiphenyls(PCBs), 223
7.2.4 PolyhalogenatedDibenzo-p-DioxinsandDibenzofurans
(PXDD/Fs), 226
7.2.5 PolybrominatedDiphenylEthers(PBDEs)andotherFlame
Retardants, 226
7.2.6 OrganochlorinePesticides(OCPs), 232
7.2.7 OtherPesticides, 236
7.2.8 PerfluorinatedCompounds(PFCs), 239
7.2.9 PharmaceuticalsandPersonalCareProducts(PPCPs)andother
EndocrineDisruptingCompounds(EDCs), 240
7.3 DescriptorsofOrganicMolecules, 243
7.4 BasicPhysicochemicalProperties, 245
7.4.1 VaporPressure, 246
7.4.2 AqueousSolubility, 247
7.4.3 Henry’sLawConstant, 248
7.4.4 Octanol–WaterPartitionCoefficient, 248
7.4.5 Air–OctanolPartitionCoefficient, 249
7.5 DistributionofOrganicChemicalsinAquaticEnvironment, 249
7.5.1 Air–Water, 250
7.5.2 Water–Sediment, 250
7.5.3 Water–BiotaandSediment–Biota, 251
7.6 TransformationsinWater, 252
7.6.1 Hydrolysis, 253
7.6.2 PhotochemicalDegradation, 255
7.6.3 BiologicalDegradation, 257
7.6.4 CaseStudy:TransformationofPBDEsintheEnvironment, 259
References, 261
8 PATHOGENS 268
8.1 Introduction, 268
8.2 Bacteria, 271
8.3 Protozoa, 272
8.3.1 Cryptosporidium, 273
8.4 MolecularTechniquesforDetectionofPathogens, 276
8.4.1 Water, 276
8.4.2 Biosolids, 277
8.5 PathogenIndicatorOrganismsandSurrogates, 277
8.5.1 BacillusSubtilis, 280
8.5.2 E.ColiandFecalColiforms, 280
8.6 BacterialContaminationofRecreationalWaters, 281
8.6.1 Modeling, 283