Petroleum Engineer's Guide to Oil Field Chemicals and Fluids, Second Edition PDF
Preview Petroleum Engineer's Guide to Oil Field Chemicals and Fluids, Second Edition
Petroleum Engineer’s Guide to Oil Field Chemicals and Fluids Second Edition Petroleum Engineer’s Guide to Oil Field Chemicals and Fluids Second Edition Johannes Fink AMSTERDAM (cid:129) BOSTON (cid:129) HEIDELBERG (cid:129) LONDON NEW YORK (cid:129) OXFORD (cid:129) PARIS (cid:129) SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO (cid:129) SINGAPORE (cid:129) SYDNEY (cid:129) TOKYO Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier GulfProfessionalPublishingisanimprintofElsevier 225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB,UK ©2015,2012ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationabout thePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyright ClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperience broadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatment maybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingand usinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformation ormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesfor whomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeany liabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligence orotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedin thematerialherein. BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress ForinformationonallGulfProfessionalpublications visitourwebsiteathttp://store.elsevier.com/ ISBN:978-0-12-803734-8 Preface to Second Edition ThismanuscriptisanextensionandupdatefromPetroleumEngineer’sGuidetoOil FieldChemicalsandFluids,whichappearedin2010. The most recent literature including articles as well as mostly US patents that appearedsince2010arecollectedandintroducedinthenewtext. Lastbutnottheleast,Iwanttothankthepublisherforkindsupport,inparticular, KatieHammonandKiruthikaGovindaraju. J.K.F. March9,2015 v Preface This manuscript is an extension and update from Oil Field Chemicals, which appeared in 2003. The text focuses mainly on the organic chemistry of oil field chemicals. As indicated by the title, preferably engineers with less background in organicchemistrywillusethistext.Therefore,varioussketchesofthechemicalsand additionalexplanations andcommentsareincludedinthetexttothoseaneducated organicchemistiscertainlyfamiliar. Thematerialpresentedhereisacompilationfromtheliterature,includingpatents. Thetextisarrangedintheorderasneededbyatypicaljob.Itstartswithdrillingfluids andrelatedapplications,suchasfluidloss,bitlubricants,etc.Thenitcrossesoverto the next major topics, cementing, fracturing, enhanced recovery, and it ends with pipelinesandspill. Some of the chemicals are used in more than one main field. For example, surfactants are used in nearly all of the applications. The last three chapters are devoted to these chemicals. As environmental aspects are gaining increasing importance,thisissueisalsodealtcarefully. HOW TO USE THIS BOOK INDEX Therearethreeindices:anindexofacronyms,anindexofchemicals,andageneral index. Inachapter,ifanacronymisoccurringthefirsttime,itisexpandedtolongform andtoshortform,forexample,acrylicacid(AA)andplacedintheindex.Ifitoccurs afterwardsitisgivenintheshortformonly,i.e.,AA.Ifthetermoccursonlyoncein aspecificchapter,itisgivenexclusivelyinthelongform. Inthechemicalindex,boldfacepagenumbersrefertothesketchesofstructural formulasortoequationswhichreferreactions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Thebibliographyisgivenperchapterandissortedintheorderofoccurrence.After the bibliography, a list of tradenames that are found in the references and which chemicalsarebehindthesenames,asfaraslaidopenisadded. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The continuous interest and the promotion by Professor Wolfgang Kern, the head of the department is highly appreciated. I am indebted to our university librarians, Dr. Christian Hasenhüttl, Dr. Johann Delanoy, Franz Jurek, Margit Keshmiri, Dolores Knabl, Friedrich vii viii Preface Scheer,ChristianSlamenik,andRenateTschabuschnigfortheirsupportintheacquisitionof literature.Thisbookcouldnothavebeenotherwisecompiled.ThanksaregiventoProfessor I.Lakatos,UniversityofMiskolcwhodirectedmyinteresttothistopic. J.K.F. CHAPTER 1 Drilling muds According to American Petroleum Institute (API), a drilling fluid is defined as a circulatingfluidusedinrotarydrillingtoperformanyorallofthevariousfunctions requiredindrillingoperations. Drillingfluidsaremixturesofnaturalandsyntheticchemicalcompoundsusedto cool and lubricate the drill bit, clean the hole bottom, carry cuttings to the surface, controlformationpressures,andimprovethefunctionofthedrillstringandtoolsin thehole.Theyaredividedintotwogeneraltypes:water-baseddrillingmuds(WBMs) andoil-baseddrillingmuds(OBMs).Thetypeoffluidbaseuseddependsondrilling andformationneeds,aswellastherequirementsfordispositionofthefluidafterit isnolongerneeded.Drillingmudsareaspecialclassofdrillingfluidsusedtodrill mostdeepwells.Mudreferstothethickconsistencyoftheformulation. Drillingfluidsserveseveralfundamentalfunctions[1,2]: • controlofdownholeformationpressures, • overcomingthefluidpressureoftheformation, • avoidingdamageoftheproducingformation, • removalofcuttingsgeneratedbythedrillbitfromtheborehole,and • coolingandlubricatingofthedrillbit. In addition to these fundamental functions of drilling fluids, drilling fluids preferably possess several desirable characteristics which can greatly enhance the efficiencyofthedrillingoperation. To perform these functions, an efficient drilling fluid must exhibit numerous characteristics,suchasdesiredrheologicalproperties(plasticviscosity,yieldvalue, low-end rheology, and gel strengths), fluid loss prevention, stability under various temperatureandpressureoperatingconditions,stabilityagainstcontaminatingfluids, suchassaltwater,calciumsulfate,cement,andpotassiumcontaminatedfluids[1]. Preferably,thedrillingfluidexhibitspenetrationenhancementcharacteristics,by havingphysicalproperties,whichwetthedrillstringandkeepthecuttingsurfacesof thedrillbit(whetheroftherollerconeorotherconfiguration)clean. The wetting attribute is at least in part a function of the surface tension of the fluid. The drilling fluid also preferably has a high degree of lubricity, to minimize frictionbetweenthedrillstringandthewalloftheborehole,anextremelyvaluable resultbeingtheminimizingofdifferentialsticking.Inthissituation,thehydrostatic PetroleumEngineer’sGuidetoOilFieldChemicalsandFluids.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803734-8.00001-1 1 ©2015ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 2 CHAPTER 1 Drilling muds pressureofthedrillingfluidcolumnissufficientlyhigherthantheformationpressure sothatthedrillstringisforcedagainstthewalloftheboreholeandstuck. Yetanotherdesirablecharacteristicisthepreventionfromswellingofthesolids oftheformation,thatis,primarilyclaysandshales,whichfurtherreducesincidents ofdrillstringsticking,undergaugeholes,etc.Inhibitionofclayswelling,ingeneral, resultsfrompreventingtheclaysfromadsorbingwater. 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MUDS Theclassificationofdrillingmudsisbasedontheirfluidphasealkalinity,dispersion, and the type of chemicals used. The classification according to Lyons [3] is reproducedinTable1.1. DrillingmudsareusuallyclassifiedaseitherWBMsorOBMs,dependingupon thecharacterofthecontinuousphaseofthemud.However,WBMsmaycontainoil andOBMsmaycontainwater[4]. OBMs generally use hydrocarbon oil as the main liquid component with other materials such as clays or colloidal asphalts added to provide the desired viscosity togetherwithemulsifiers,polymers,andotheradditivesincludingweightingagents. Water may also be present, but in an amount not usually greater than 50 volume percentoftheentirecomposition.Ifmorethanabout5%ofwaterispresent,themud isoftenreferredtoasaninvertemulsion,thatis,water-in-oilemulsion. WBMs conventionally contain viscosifiers, fluid loss control agents, weighting agents,lubricants,emulsifiers,corrosioninhibitors,salts,andpHcontrolagents.The watermakesupthecontinuousphaseofthemudandisusuallypresentinanyamount ofatleast50volumepercentoftheentirecomposition.Oilisalsousuallypresentin minoramountsbutwilltypicallynotexceedtheamountofthewatersothatthemud willretainitscharacterasawater-continuousphasematerial. Potassium muds are the most widely accepted water mud system for drilling + water sensitive shales. K ions attach to clay surfaces and lend stability to shale Table1.1 ClassificationofDrillingMuds Class Description Freshwater pHfrom7to9.5,includespudmuds,bentonite-containingmuds, mudsa phosphate-containingmuds,organicthinnedmuds(redmuds, lignitemuds,lignosulfonatemuds),organiccolloidmuds Inhibitedmudsa Water-baseddrillingmudsthatrepresshydrationofclays(lime muds,gypsummuds,seawatermuds,saturatedsaltwatermuds) Low-solidsmudsb Containlessthan3-6%ofsolids.Mostcontainanorganicpolymer Emulsions Oilinwaterandwaterinoil(reversedphase,withmorethan5% water) OBMs Containlessthan5%water;mixtureofdieselfuelandasphalt aDispersedsystems. bNondispersedsystems. 1.1 Classification of muds 3 exposed to drilling fluids by the bit. The ions also help hold the cuttings together, minimizing dispersion into finer particles. Potassium chloride, KCl, is the most widely used potassium source. Others are potassium acetate, potassium carbonate, potassium lignite, potassium hydroxide, and potassium salt of partially hydrolyzed poly(acrylamide)(PHPA).Forrheologycontrol,differenttypesofpolymersareused, forexample,xanthangumandPHPA.Forfluidlosscontrol,mixturesofstarchand polyanionic cellulose (PAC) are often used. Carboxymethyl starch, hydroxypropyl starch, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and sodium poly(acrylate) are also used. PHPAiswidelyusedforshaleencapsulation. Saltwatermudscontainvaryingamountsofdissolvedsodiumchloride(NaCl)as a major component. Undissolved salt may also be present in saturated salt muds to increasedensityortoactasabridgingagentoverpermeablezones.Starchandstarch derivativesforfluidlosscontrolandxanthangumsforholecleaningareamongthe fewhighlyeffectiveadditivesforsaltwatermuds. Sea water mud is a WBM designed for offshore drilling whose make-up water is taken from the ocean. Sea water has a relatively low salinity, containing about 3-4% of NaCl, but has a high hardness because of Mg+2 and Ca+2 ions. Hardness isremovedfromseawaterbyaddingNaOH,whichprecipitatesMg+2 asMg(OH) 2 andbyaddingNa CO ,whichremovesCa+2asCaCO .Mudadditivesarethesame 2 3 3 asthoseusedinfreshwatermuds[4]: • bentoniteclay, • lignosulfonate, • lignite, • CMC,or • PAC,and • causticsoda. Xanthan gum may also be used in place of bentonite. Silicate-mud is a type of shale-inhibitivewatermudthatcontainssodiumorpotassiumsilicateastheinhibitive component. High pH is a necessary characteristic of silicate muds to control the amount and type of polysilicates that are formed. The pH of the mud is controlled byadditionofNaOH(orKOH)andtheappropriatesilicatesolution.Silicateanions andcolloidalsilicagelcombinetostabilizethewellborebysealingmicrofractures, formingasilicalayeronshalesandpossiblyactingasanosmoticmembrane,which canproducein-gaugeholesthroughtroublesomeshalesectionsthatotherwisemight requireanoilmud. LimemudisatypeofWBMthatissaturatedwithlime,Ca(OH) ,andhasexcess, 2 undissolved lime solids maintained in reserve. Fluid loss additives include starch, hydroxypropylstarch,CMC,orPAC[4]. 1.1.1 DISPERSED NONINHIBITED SYSTEMS Drillingfluidsusedintheupperholesectionsarereferredtoasdispersednoninhib- itedsystems.Theyareformulatedfromfreshwaterandmaycontainbentonite.The 4 CHAPTER 1 Drilling muds Table1.2 ClassificationofBentoniteFluidSystems Solid-Solid Inhibition Interactions Level DrillingFluidType Dispersed Noninhibited FreshwaterclayNaCl<1%,CaCl ,<120ppm 2 Dispersed Inhibited Salinefluids,Na+,Ca2+salt,saturatedsalt,gypsum, lime Nondispersed Noninhibited Freshwaterlow-solidsmuds Nondispersed Inhibited Saltandpolymerfluids classificationofbentonite-basedmudsisshowninTable1.2.Theflowpropertiesare controlled by a flocculant or thinner, and the fluid loss is controlled with bentonite andCMC. 1.1.2 PHOSPHATE-TREATED MUDS Phosphatesareeffectiveonlyinsmallconcentrations.Themudtemperaturemustbe ◦ lessthan55 C.Thesaltcontaminationmustbelessthan500ppmsodiumchloride. Theconcentrationofcalciumionsshouldbekeptaslowaspossible.ThepHshould bebetween8and9.5.SomephosphatesmaydecreasethepH,soaddingmoreNaOH isrequired. 1.1.3 LIGNITE MUDS ◦ Lignite muds are high-temperature resistant up to 230 C. Lignite can control viscosity,gelstrength,andfluidloss.Thetotalhardnessmustbelowerthan20ppm. 1.1.4 QUEBRACHO MUDS QuebrachoisanaturalproductextractedfromtheheartwoodoftheSchinopsistrees thatgrowinArgentinaandParaguay.Quebrachoisawellcharacterizedpolyphenolic andisreadilyextractedfromthewoodbyhotwater.Quebrachoiswidelyusedasa tanningagent.Itisalsousedasamineraldressing,asadispersantindrillingmuds, andinwoodglues.Quebrachoiscommerciallyavailableasacrudehotwaterextract, either in lump, ground, or spray-dried form, or as a bisulfite treated spray-dried product that is completely soluble in cold water. Quebracho is also available in a bleachedform,whichcanbeusedinapplicationswherethedarkcolorofunbleached quebrachoisundesirable[5]. Quebracho-treated fresh water muds were used in shallow depths. It is also referred to as red mud because of the deep red color. Quebracho acts as a thinner. Poly(phosphate)sarealsoaddedwhenquebrachoisused.Quebrachoisactiveatlow concentrationsandconsistsoftannates.
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