Personality Psychology: Pearson New International Edition: Foundations and Findings

439 Pages·2013·18.98 MB·English

by  Marianne Miserandino

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Personality Psychology
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Foundations and Findings

Marianne Miserandino

First Edition
ISBN 978-1-29203-917-6
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Pearson New International Edition

Personality Psychology
Foundations and Findings
Marianne Miserandino
First Edition
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P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
Glossary
Marianne Miserandino 1
1. Who Am I? Understanding the Building Blocks of Personality
Marianne Miserandino 17
2. Personality Traits: A Good Theory
Marianne Miserandino 35
3. Personality Traits: Practical Matters
Marianne Miserandino 61
4. Personality Assessment
Marianne Miserandino 91
5. Self and Identity
Marianne Miserandino 119
6. Genetics
Marianne Miserandino 153
7. The Neuroscience of Personality
Marianne Miserandino 181
8. Intrapsychic Foundations of Personality
Marianne Miserandino 217
9. Regulation and Motivation: Self-Determination Theory
Marianne Miserandino 255
10. Cognitive Foundations of Personality
Marianne Miserandino 285
11. Gender and Personality
Marianne Miserandino 325
References
Marianne Miserandino 363
I
421
Index 421
II
GLOSSARY
Acquiescent responding  A type of response set in which respondents agree with nearly every 
question.
Active genotype–environment correlation  When people with a certain genotype seek out a specific 
environment because of their personality.
Actualizing tendency  The motive to actualize, that is, to bring about growth and positive change.
Adult attachment interview  A method for assessing attachment in adults by using open-ended 
interview questions to probe memories of adults’ relationships with their primary caregivers.
Agency  A traditionally masculine way of approaching the social world concerned with actions 
and accomplishments.
Agreeableness  A personality trait which describes the quality of personal relationships; how much 
a person feels for and gets along with others. People who are low in Agreeableness tend to be 
quarrelsome, critical, harsh, blunt, and aloof.
Ah-Q  An indigenous Chinese trait term that means defensiveness; named for Ah-Q, a well-known 
fictional Chinese character depicted in a classic novel.
Alleles  Alternative forms of the same gene which occur in pairs, one inherited from each birth parent.
Alpha  Part of the two-factor model of personality, being emotionally stable enough to get along 
with others. Includes the factors of Emotional Stability, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.
Amae  An indigenous Japanese trait term describing a state of dependency on another person and 
the inducing of responsibility for caregiving in that other person.
Amotivation  The state of having no motivation, being neither intrinsically nor extrinsically 
motivated. Often accompanied by feelings of apathy or alienation.
Anal expulsive personality  A fixation in the early part of the anal stage resulting in inhibition, 
self-confidence, resistance to authority, lack of sphincter or bowel control, and the symbolic 
behaviors of generosity and creativity.
Anal retentive personality  A fixation in the later part of the anal stage resulting in rigidity, 
compulsiveness, living up to the expectations of others, constipation, stinginess, and the 
symbolic behaviors of orderliness, stubbornness, and perfectionism.
Androgens  Masculine hormones, like testosterone, that regulate sexual behavior and the brain 
structures that support these behaviors.
Androgynous  Males and females who score high on both the masculinity and femininity scales 
of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI).
Anhedonia  The lack of positive emotion; a loss of or inability to experience pleasure that may or 
may not be accompanied by the presence of negative emotions.
Anxious-ambivalent attachment  An insecure bond children have with their primary caregivers, 
marked by inconsistent responsiveness at home, little exploration in the strange situation, distress 
when separated, and seeking out of the mother on reunion, but being unable to be comforted.
Arousability  In physiology, how reactive people are to stimulation; an important difference 
between extraverts and introverts. In sexuality, the capacity to become aroused to sexual stimuli.
Arrangement techniques  A type of performance-based test in which respondents move objects 
around or choose their favorites using ambiguous stimuli.
From Personality Psychology: Foundations and Findings, First Edition. Marianne Miserandino. 
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
Glossary
Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)  A pathway transmitting signals from the limbic sys-
tem and hypothalamus to the cortex. Activation here can make a person alert and mentally sharp.
Association techniques  A type of performance-based test, such as the Word Association Test 
and Rorschach inkblot test, in which respondents report their reactions to ambiguous stimuli.
Assumption of representativeness  The assumption that identical twins are typical of the population 
on the specific characteristic under investigation, an assumption behind the double-the-difference 
between MZ and DZ twins reared apart measure of heritability.
Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ)  A 12-item personality test designed to measure 
explanatory style.
Attributive self-descriptions  In the Twenty Statements Test, aspects of the self-concept that refer 
to psychological or physiological states or traits.
Authentic self-presentation  Presenting a true, correct image of the self.
Autonomic nervous system  Regulates smooth muscles including inner organs, cardiac muscle, 
and glands. Includes the sympathetic division and parasympathetic division.
Autonomous orientation  The degree to which people interpret a situation as autonomy supportive, 
providing information to allow them to be self-regulating.
Autonomy  One of the three needs according to self-determination theory; feeling free and able to 
make choices about one’s actions.
Avoidant attachment  An insecure bond children have with their primary caregivers, marked by 
little affection at home, exploration in the strange situation, no overt reaction to separation, and 
no seeking of comfort on reunion.
Avoidant coping  Strategies aimed at avoiding problems and not managing the negative emotions 
associated with stressful events.
Barnum Effect  When people falsely believe that invalid personality tests are actually good 
measures of personality because they contain feedback so general that it applies to many 
people at the same time.
Behavioral approach system (BAS)  The brain system associated with stimuli that are enticing, pleasur-
able, and rewarding and the personality characteristics of optimism, impulsiveness, addictive behav-
iors, high-risk impulsive behaviors, and mania. The BAS makes a person more sensitive to rewards.
Behavioral genetics  The study of the genetic and environmental contributions to individual 
differences in personality and behavior.
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)  The brain system associated with conflicts that may cause 
feelings of anxiety, worry, rumination, risk assessment, vigilance, a sense of possible danger, 
and a sense of loss. May be related to obsessive-compulsive disorders or a generalized anxiety 
disorder. When the BIS is activated, people become more sensitive to punishment.
Behavioral residue  Physical traces in living spaces left behind by the everyday actions of people.
Beneficence  Along with respect for persons and justice, one of the three principles of ethical 
research with human participants outlined in the Belmont report.
Beta  Part of the two-factor model of personality, being open and adapting to new experiences. 
Includes the factors of Extraversion and Openness.
Big Five  A five-factor model of personality based on the lexical approach: Surgency (Extraversion), 
Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Culture.
Biopsychosocial model  A model of gender differences that suggests gender differences are caused 
by a combination of biological, psychological, and social forces interacting with one another.
Bipolar scale  A scale that measures a single dimension, defined at either end by two contrasting 
qualities (e.g., masculinity–femininity, active–passive).
Boredom susceptibility  The need for change and variety and an aversion to routine and sameness. 
One of the four subscales of the Sensation Seeking scale.
Broaden-and-build theory  The theory that positive emotions like elevation, joy, interest, content-
ment, pride, and love expand people’s awareness, thoughts, and actions and help build physical, 
intellectual, social, and psychological resources for coping with adversity.
Cardinal trait  A single trait that completely dominates a person’s entire personality. Most often 
found in fictional characters than in actual people.
Case study method  The in-depth research study of a single individual.
Castration anxiety  When a boy lives in fear that his father will castrate him as revenge for loving 
his mother.
Catharsis  The release of built-up id energy.
2
Glossary
Causality orientation  People’s typical way of regulating their motivation and behavior developed 
over a lifetime of experiences with internal and external motivation.
CAVE technique  (the content analysis of verbatim explanations technique) A method for measuring 
explanatory style from any kind of verbal material.
Central nervous system  The brain and the spinal cord.
Central traits  The 5 to 10 traits that best describe a person.
Challenge test  A technique to identify neurotransmitter function in which researchers administer 
a drug with a known effect on a specific neurotransmitter and monitor the impact of the drug 
on reactions that are thought to be related to the neurotransmitter.
Change  When a personality trait is different, either increasing or decreasing, over time.
Clear purpose integrity tests  (overt integrity tests) A type of personality assessment, often used 
during the hiring process, to test the honesty of job candidates in a way that is clearly stated 
and obvious to the test taker.
Cognitive foundations  One of the building blocks of personality concerned with how people 
perceive and think about information about themselves and the world.
Cognitive unconscious  The part of the mind that contains nonconscious urges, thoughts, wishes, 
desires, and memories that may influence our conscious thoughts.
Collectivism  The belief that the views, needs, and goals of the group are more important than 
those of the individual, emphasizing the interconnectedness of individuals and the group.
Collectivistic cultures  Cultures that emphasize collectivism more than individualism.
Common rule  Regulations about human participant research adopted by all U.S. federal agencies 
establishing an institutional review board and procedures for obtaining informed consent at all 
institutions where research is conducted.
Communion  A traditionally feminine way of approaching the social world concerned with 
nurturing and getting along with others.
Competence  One of the three needs according to self-determination theory; feeling effective in 
one’s actions.
Completion techniques  A type of performance-based test, such as sentence completion tests, in 
which respondents fill in the blanks with their own responses.
Complex  A pattern of thoughts, memories, and perceptions organized around a theme that signify 
an important, but often unconscious, concern of a person.
Computer axial tomography (CAT) scan  A high-resolution x-ray picture of thin slices of brain 
tissue, now called a computerized tomography (CT) scan.
Computerized tomography (CT) scan  A high-resolution x-ray picture of thin slices of brain 
tissue, formerly called a computer axial tomography (CAT) scan.
Conscience  The part of the superego that contains knowledge of what we should not do, actions 
we have been punished for in the past, and that punishes us with feelings of guilt, shame, and 
embarrassment when we do something wrong in the present.
Conscientiousness  A personality trait that describes an individual’s degree of physical and mental 
organization and regulation of impulses like thinking before acting, delaying gratification, or 
following norms and rules. People who are low in Conscientiousness are described as disorga-
nized and tend to be late, careless, and impulsive.
Consistency  When a personality trait stays the same over time; also called continuity.
Constitutional predisposition models  Models of how personality impacts health that suggest 
that there may be some underlying genetic or constitutional factor which influences both 
personality and disease.
Construct validity  When an assessment successfully measures the theoretical concept it was 
designed to measure.
Construction techniques  A type of performance-based test, such as the Thematic Apperception 
Test and the Draw-A-Person Test, in which respondents create a story or a piece of artwork in 
response to an ambiguous stimulus.
Content analysis  Organizing and making sense out of people’s verbal responses in a meaningful way.
Continuity  When a personality trait stays the same over time; also called consistency.
Control condition  In an experiment, this refers to the group of participants who receive no 
treatment or a neutral treatment.
Controlled orientation  The degree to which people interpret a situation as controlling, letting the 
environment or their own introjects control their behavior.
3
Glossary
Convergent validity  Establishes how good an assessment is by comparing the results to other 
tests of the same construct or to tests of related constructs in order to establish what the test 
measures.
Conversion reaction  When anxiety is so extreme that it causes a physical symptom.
Correlation coefficient  An estimate of the co-relation between two variables. Correlations can be 
positive or negative depending on the type of relationship.
Correlational study  A type of research design in which experimenters measure variables to see 
how they are related. Used when certain variables, like personality, cannot be directly manipu-
lated for practical or ethical reasons.
Counterproductive work behaviors  Actions that make it difficult or impossible for people to 
function in their jobs, including absenteeism, tardiness, turnover, accidents, and stealing.
Criterion validity  Establishes how good an assessment is by comparing the results to an external 
standard such as another personality test or some behavioral outcome.
Cronbach’s alpha  A measure of internal consistency reliability; the average correlation among 
all possible combinations of test items taking them half at a time.
Cross sex-typed  A female who scores high on the masculinity scale and low on the femininity scale 
of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI); a male who scores high on the femininity scale and low 
on the masculinity scale of the BSRI.
Defense mechanism  How the ego deals with anxiety caused by an unacceptable impulse by chang-
ing the impulse or its desires into something more acceptable in order for the ego to protect 
itself and minimize anxiety and distress.
Deindividuation  The loosening of social norms and roles that occurs when people are anonymous 
or part of a large group.
Denial  A defense mechanism in which threatening or traumatic events or emotions are not 
acknowledged.
Dependent variable  The variable under study, a participant’s response, the variable the experi-
menters measure or observe.
Development  Continuity and change in personality over time.
Dialectic  A way of thinking in which contradictions are seen to be part of a higher truth rather 
than as opposing forces.
Discriminant validity  Establishes how good an assessment is by comparing the results to tests of 
theoretically unrelated constructs in order to establish what the test doesn’t measure.
Disguised purpose integrity tests  A type of personality assessment, often used during the hir-
ing process, to test the honesty of job candidates in a way that is hidden from the test taker.
Disinhibition  The extent to which people have lowered social inhibitions and enjoy letting 
loose in the company of others without a thought about decorum, proper behavior, or social 
norms. Disinhibition often takes the form of alcohol use, partying, and sex. Disinhibition is 
one of the four subscales of the Sensation Seeking scale.
Disorganized/disoriented  A lack of a clear, consistent bond between children and their primary 
caregivers marked by a lack of attachment strategy in the Strange Situation, often to a mother who 
is highly anxious and unable to give comfort to the child at home.
Displacement  A defense mechanism in which the ego substitutes an unacceptable object of an 
impulse with a more acceptable object.
Dispositional optimism  A general expectation that things will get better, good things will happen 
in the future, events and circumstances will work out for the best.
Dizygotic (DZ) twins  Fraternal twins, sharing about 50% of their genes with each other. DZ 
twins are created when two different sperm fertilize two different eggs leading to the develop-
ment of genetically distinct fetuses.
Double-blind technique  A research method to minimize expectancy effects in which neither the 
experimenter nor the participant knows which condition a participant is in.
Dream analysis  The detailed examination of the content and symbolism of dreams in order to 
decipher their hidden, unconscious meaning.
Effect size  A statistic that estimates the average difference between two groups.
Efficacy expectation  In self-efficacy theory, the belief that one is capable of acting in a certain way.
Ego ideal  The part of the superego that contains knowledge of what we should do, actions we have 
been rewarded for in the past.
4
Glossary
Ego resilience  The ability to modify one’s responses to meet the requirements of a stressful situation 
and return to one’s characteristic level of self-regulation after a stressor; now called trait resilience.
Eigenvalue  In factor analysis, the amount of variation among participants’ answers that a factor 
accounts for.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)  Identifies electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed 
on the scalp.
Electromyography (EMG)  A measure of muscle activity during contraction and relaxation.
Emotion-focused coping  Strategies aimed at reducing distress by managing the negative emotions 
associated with stressful events.
Emotional attachment system  The biological system that maintains romantic relationships by 
causing us to fall in love; regulated by pair-bonding that evolutionarily keeps couples together 
to maximize the chances their offspring will survive.
Environmentality (e2)  The amount of observed individual differences in a characteristic which 
can be accounted for by environmental differences.
Epigenetics  The study of how the environment changes the function of genes without changing 
the genes themselves.
Equal environments assumption  The assumption that identical twins are not treated more alike 
than fraternal twins, an assumption behind the double-the-difference between MZ and DZ 
twins reared apart measure of heritability.
Erogenous zone  A part of the body where instincts originate; a part of the body that is a special 
focus of attention during a psychosexual stage of development.
Eros  The life instincts.
Evoked potential  Electrical activity in a specific brain cell in response to a stimulus.
Evolutionary psychology  The branch of psychology that studies how the need to survive, adapt, 
and reproduce under various biological and environmental conditions has shaped human 
personality and behavior.
Exemplification  A self-presentation strategy of projecting a false image of the self as a good example 
in order to arouse guilt in others.
Exon  That part of the gene which codes for a specific trait.
Exotic becomes erotic (EBE) theory  The theory of Daryl Bem that suggests that cultures that 
emphasize the difference between men and women end up polarizing the genders, causing the 
other gender to become foreign, mysterious, and a source of sexual interest.
Experience seeking  The desire for moderate arousal through different kinds of experiences involv-
ing both the mind and the senses, perhaps through music, travel, or an unconventional lifestyle. 
One of the four subscales of the Sensation Seeking scale.
Experimental condition  In an experiment, this refers to the group of participants who receive the 
treatment the experimenter is testing.
Experimental control  This is when all aspects of an experiment are the same except for the specific 
variable(s) under study. Along with random assignment, this allows experimenters to draw 
conclusions about the cause of their results.
Explanatory style  How people explain the good and bad events in their lives using the three 
dimensions of internal–external, stable–unstable, and global–specific.
Expression techniques  A type of performance-based test in which respondents express their 
thoughts and feelings through creative play or artwork.
External regulation  A type of self-regulation where behavior is controlled by something or someone 
outside a person often by rewards and punishments.
Extraversion  A personality trait that describes how much people energetically seek out interac-
tions with others and experience positive emotions. People who are low in Extraversion are 
described as introverted and tend to be reserved, quiet, and shy.
Extreme responding  A type of response set in which respondents avoid the middle of a scale, 
choosing answers on either end.
Extrinsic motivation  Engaging in an activity due to reasons outside the activity itself.
Extrinsically motivated  Doing something because of external pressures like rewards and 
punishments.
Face validity  When an assessment appears to measure the theoretical concept it was designed to 
measure based on the kinds of questions it contains.
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