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Oil Spill Science and Technology PDF

1189 Pages·2010·22.038 MB·English
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Oil Spill Science and Technology This page intentionally left blank Oil Spill Science and Technology Prevention, Response, and Cleanup Edited by Mervin Fingas AmsterdamlBostonlHeidelberglLondonlNewYorklOxford ParislSanDiegolSanFranciscolSingaporelSydneylTokyo GulfProfessionalPublishingisanimprintofElsevier GulfProfessionalPublishingisanimprintofElsevier 30CorporateDrive,Suite400,Burlington,MA01803,USA TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB,UK Copyright(cid:1)2011ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical, includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthe publisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandour arrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbe foundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmay benotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenour understanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusingany information,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbe mindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforany injuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseor operationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Oilspillscienceandtechnology:prevention,response,andcleanup/editedbyMervinFingas.–1sted. p.cm. Summary:“TheNationalAcademyofSciencesestimatethat1.7to8.8milliontonsofoilarereleasedintoworld’swater everyyear,ofwhichmorethan70%isdirectlyrelatedtohumanactivities.Theeffectsofthesespillsarealltooapparent: deadwildlife,oilcoveredmarshlandsandcontaminatedwaterchiefamongthem.Thisreferencewillprovidescientists, engineersandpractitionerswiththelatestmethodsuseforidentifyandeliminatingspillsbeforetheyoccuranddevelopthe bestavailabletechniques,equipmentandmaterialsfordealingwithoilspillsineveryenvironment.Topicscovered include:spilldynamicsandbehaviour,spilltreatingagents,andcleanuptechniquessuchas:insituburning,mechanical containmentorrecovery,chemicalandbiologicalmethodsandphysicalmethodsareusedtocleanupshorelines.Also includedarethefateandeffectsofoilspillsandmeanstoassessdamage”–Providedbypublisher. ISBN978-1-85617-943-0 1.Oilspills–Prevention.2.Oilspills–Cleanup.3.Oilspils–Managements.I.Fingas,MervinF. TD427.P4O387852010 628.1’6833–dc22 2010033465 BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. ISBN:978-1-85617-943-0 ForinformationonallGulfProfessionalPublishingpublicationsvisitourWebsiteat www.elsevierdirect.com 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PrintedandboundintheUSA Contents Preface xxv AbouttheContributors xxvii Part I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem 1. Introduction 3 MervFingas 1.1. Introduction 3 1.2. AWordontheFrequencyofSpills 4 2. Spill Occurrences: AWorld Overview 7 DagmarSchmidt-Etkin 2.1. Introduction 7 2.2. ExecutiveSummary 8 2.3. OverviewofSpillOccurrences 8 2.3.1. NaturalOilSeepage 8 2.3.2. HistoricalConcernOverOilPollution 11 2.3.3. SourcesofOilSpillsandPatternsofSpillage 12 2.3.4. SpillagefromOilExplorationandProduction Activities 17 2.3.5. SpillsDuringOilTransport 23 2.3.6. SpillagefromOilRefining 28 2.3.7. SpillageRelatedtoOilConsumptionandUsage 32 2.3.8. OilInputsfromPotentiallyPollutingSunken Shipwrecks 39 2.3.9. SummaryofOilSpillage 41 References 46 Part II Types of Oils and Their Properties 3. Introduction to Oil Chemistry and Properties 51 MervFingas 3.1. Introduction 51 v vi Contents 3.2. TheCompositionofOil 51 3.3. PropertiesofOil 54 References 59 Part III Oil Analysis and Remote Sensing 4. Measurement of Oil Physical Properties 63 BruceHollebone 4.1. Introduction 63 4.2. BulkPropertiesofCrudeOilandFuelProducts 63 4.2.1. DensityandAPIGravity 66 4.2.2. DynamicViscosity 67 4.2.3. SurfaceandInterfacialTensions 67 4.2.4. FlashPoint 69 4.2.5. PourPoint 70 4.2.6. SulphurContent 70 4.2.7. WaterContent 70 4.2.8. EvaluationoftheStabilityofEmulsionsFormed fromBrineandOilsandOilProducts 71 4.2.9. EvaluationoftheRelativeDispersabilityof OilandOilProducts 71 4.2.10. AdhesiontoStainlessSteel 72 4.3. HydrocarbonGroups 73 4.4. QualityAssuranceandControl 77 4.5. EffectsofEvaporativeWeatheringonOilBulkProperties 78 4.5.1. Weathering 78 4.5.2. PreparingEvaporated(Weathered)SamplesofOils 79 4.5.3. QuantifyingEquation(s)forPredictingEvaporation 81 References 83 Appendix4.1 85 5. Introduction to Oil Chemical Analysis 87 MervFingas 5.1. Introduction 87 5.2. SamplingandLaboratoryAnalysis 87 5.2.1. IncorrectandObsoleteMethods 88 5.3. Chromatography 89 5.3.1. IntroductiontoGasChromatography 89 5.3.2. Methodology 93 5.4. IdentificationandForensicAnalysis 96 5.4.1. Biomarkers 99 5.4.2. SesquiterpanesandDiamondoids 105 5.5. FieldAnalysis 107 References 107 Contents vii 6. Oil Spill Remote Sensing: A Review 111 MervFingasandCarlE.Brown 6.1. Introduction 111 6.2. VisibleIndicationsofOil 112 6.3. OpticalSensors 114 6.3.1. Visible 114 6.3.2. Infrared 120 6.3.3. Ultraviolet 123 6.4. LaserFluorosensors 123 6.5. MicrowaveSensors 124 6.5.1. Radiometers 124 6.5.2. Radar 125 6.5.3. MicrowaveScatterometers 134 6.5.4. SurfaceWaveRadars 135 6.5.5. InterferometricRadar 135 6.6. SlickThicknessDetermination 135 6.6.1. VisualThicknessIndications 135 6.6.2. SlickThicknessRelationships inRemoteSensors 136 6.6.3. SpecificThicknessSensors 138 6.7. AcousticSystems 139 6.8. IntegratedAirborneSensorSystems 139 6.9. SatelliteRemoteSensing 140 6.10. OilUnderIceDetection 144 6.11. UnderwaterDetectionandTracking 145 6.12. SmallRemote-ControlledAircraft 149 6.13. Real-TimeDisplaysandPrinters 150 6.14. RoutineSurveillance 150 6.15. FutureTrends 153 6.16. Recommendations 154 Acknowledgments 158 References 158 7. Laser Fluorosensors 171 CarlE.Brown 7.1. PrinciplesofOperation 171 7.1.1. ActiveversusPassiveSensors 171 7.1.2. SensorFeatures 171 7.1.3. Pros/Cons 174 7.2. OilClassification 175 7.2.1. Real-TimeAnalysis 175 7.2.2. SensorOutputs 176 7.3. ExistingOperationalUnits 179 7.3.1. Airborne 179 7.3.2. Ship-Borne 179 7.4. AircraftRequirements 180 7.4.1. Power 180 viii Contents 7.4.2. Weight 181 7.4.3. OperationalAltitude 181 7.5. CostEstimates 182 7.6. Conclusions 182 References 182 Part IV Behaviour of Oil in the Environment and Spill Modeling 8. Introduction to Spill Modeling 187 MervFingas 8.1. Introduction 187 8.2. AnOverviewofWeathering 187 8.2.1. Evaporation 188 8.2.2. Emulsification 190 8.2.3. NaturalDispersion 191 8.2.4. Dissolution 192 8.2.5. Photo-Oxidation 192 8.2.6. Sedimentation,AdhesiontoSurfaces, andOil-FinesInteraction 192 8.2.7. Biodegradation 193 8.2.8. SinkingandOverwashing 194 8.2.9. FormationofTarballs 195 8.3. MovementofOilandOilSpillModeling 196 8.3.1. Spreading 196 8.3.2. MovementofOilSlicks 197 8.3.3. SpillModeling 198 References 199 9. Evaporation Modeling 201 MervFingas 9.1. Introduction 201 9.2. ReviewofTheoreticalConcepts 205 9.3. DevelopmentofNewDiffusion-RegulatedModels 212 9.3.1. WindExperiments 212 9.3.2. EvaporationRateandArea 215 9.3.3. StudyofMassandEvaporationRate 215 9.3.4. StudyoftheEvaporationofPure HydrocarbonsdwithandWithoutWind 216 9.3.5. OtherFactors 217 9.3.6. TemperatureVariationandGeneric EquationsUsingDistillationData 217 9.3.7. ASimplifiedMeansofEstimation 227 9.4. ComplexitiestotheDiffusion-RegulatedModel 229 9.4.1. ThicknessoftheOil 229 Contents ix 9.4.2. TheBottleEffect 229 9.4.3. Skinning 230 9.4.4. Risesfromthe0-WindValues 233 9.5. UseofEvaporationEquationsinSpillModels 233 9.6. ComparisonofModelApproaches 235 9.7. Summary 240 References 241 10. Models for Water-in-Oil Emulsion Formation 243 MervFingas 10.1. Introduction 243 10.2. EarlyModelingofEmulsification 249 10.3. FirstTwoModelDevelopments 251 10.4. NewModelDevelopment 253 10.5. DevelopmentofanEmulsionKineticsEstimator 260 10.6. Discussion 260 10.7. Conclusions 269 References 270 11. Oil Spill Trajectory Forecasting Uncertainty and Emergency Response 275 DebraSimecek-Beatty 11.1. Introduction:TheImportanceofForecastUncertainty 275 11.2. TheBasicsofOilSpillModeling 276 11.3. TrajectoryModelUncertainties 280 11.3.1. ReleaseDetails 281 11.3.2. Wind 282 11.3.3. Current 284 11.3.4. TurbulentDiffusion 287 11.3.5. OilWeathering 288 11.3.6. EnsembleForecasting 289 11.3.7. CommunicatingTrajectoryForecast Uncertainty 291 11.4. TrajectoryForecastVerification 292 11.4.1. DiagnosticVerification 294 11.5. SummaryandConclusions 295 Acknowledgments 297 References 297 Part V Physical Spill Countermeasures on Water 12. Physical Spill Countermeasures 303 MervFingas 12.1. ContainmentonWater 303

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