Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist (06169G) PDF
Preview Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist (06169G)
etallurgy , for the u ottMetall rg ist™ by Harry Chandler AS~ 07 RJVA77 , '---'® TheMaterials InformationSociety Copyright© 1998 by ASM Internationa1® All rightsreserved No part ofthis book may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, ortransmit ted, in any form orby any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, orotherwise, withoutthe writtenpermission ofthe copyrightowner. Firstprinting, March 1998 Secondprinting,March2003 Thirdprinting,June 2004 Fourthprinting,February 2006 Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clearthat NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUD ING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be otained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside ofASM's control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products orinformation in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall begreaterinamountthanthethe purchase priceofthis productor publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDI RECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR Naf CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification isessential.Therefore,specifictestingunderactualconditionsisrecommended. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be con strued as adefense against any alleged infringementofletters patent, copyright,or trademark, oras a defense against liability for such infringement. Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International. Library ofCongressCataloging-in-Publication Data Chandler, Harry Metallurgy for the nonmetallurgistI Harry Chandler. Includes bibliographical references and index. I. Metallurgy-Popular works. 1. Title. TN667.C43 1998669-DC21 98-4664 ISBN0-87170-652-0 SAN 204-7586 ASMInternational® MaterialsPark,OH44073-0002 www.asminternational.org Printedin the UnitedStates ofAmerica Preface I submit that I am specially qualified to represent the nonmetallurgist in writing this book, because I, too, am a nonmetallurgist. As an outsider, I do not feel bound to follow in the footsteps oftradition or practice. Textbook formats are avoided in favor of a narrative style based on the notion that a book does not always have to be dull and/or difficult to be technical. Selection of material is based largely on a personal predilection for keeping a single spotlight on a few well-chosen, related topics. In this regard there is a general leaning toward subjects dealing with the use of properties of metals and their alloys. Depth of coverage of topics is guided by the assumption that if the subject is the tree, it is not necessary to describe an entire forest. The goal is deceptively modest, using the carefully planned, well guided plant tour as a model. To wit: provide the reader with the under standing needed to feel comfortable in the presence of subjects that were foreign to him or her prior to the tour. There is no intent to confer a degree in metallurgy. By necessity Chapters 5 and 6 in places are heavy in technical detail and jargon. A suggestion is to skim through these pages on first reading to get a nodding acquaintance with the subject matter. Then proceed to Chapter 7. After finishing the book, go back and reread Chapters 5 and 6. As a nonmetallurgist, I am gratefully indebted to a number of authorita tive sources of information, as listed in the Bibliography. -Harry Chandler iii Contents Chapter 1: The Accidental Birth of a No-Name Alloy 1 Some Definitions. ............................................. 2 The Status of Metallurgy at the Turn of the Century (1900) ......... 3 Four Turning Points in Technology. .............................. 3 The Foundation Was in Place. .................................. 6 Early Work on Tool Steels. ..................................... 6 A Cross Section of Developments: 1900 to 1910 7 The Age of Innovation. ......................................... 8 The Age of Abundance " 8 The Metallurgist-Innovator 9 Looking Ahead to Chapters 2 and 3. ............................ 10 Chapter 2: Dr. Wilm's Mystery: What Happened? 11 Profile of the Atom. ........................................... 11 Like Atoms in Groups " .. '" ," .. " 12 Next Size Up: Grains and Grain Boundaries , 13 Behavior of Atoms , 13 Upgrading Pure Metals and Alloys 21 Upgrading a "Pure" Metal: 1060 Aluminum " 24 Overview of Precipitation Hardening Treatments 24 Artificial Aging of Alloy 7075 25 Natural Aging of Alloy 2017 (Duralumin) 25 To Dr. Wilm: Solute Atoms Did It 25 Chapter 3: Steels and Cast Irons: The Why of Where They Are Used 27 A Closer Look at Properties. ................................... 30 Profile of Steel. .............................................. 31 Mechanical Properties of Steel , 32 Physical Properties of Steel 41 Steel Mill Products 44 Profile of Cast Irons 45 Wear Resistance of Irons and Steels 49 Producing Castings from Iron and Steel 51 Chapter 4: Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: The Why Behind Where They Are Used 57 Aluminum (AI) 57 Beryllium (Be) 57 Bismuth (Bi) 58 Cobalt (Co) 58 Copper (Cu) 58 Gallium (Ga) 59 Germanium (Ge) .. , 59 Hafnium (Hf) 59 Indium (In) 59 Lead (Pb) 60 Magnesium (Mg) " " 61 Manganese (Ma) 61 Nickel (Ni) " .. ,.. " '" 61 Precious Metals. ............................................. 62 Rare Earth Metals. ........................................... 64 Refractory Metals 65 Superalloys ........ ................................. 66 Tin (Sn) ............... . 66 Titanium (Ti) .......... . 67 Uranium (U) 68 v Vanadium (V) 69 Zinc (Zn) 69 Zirconium (Zr) 69 Aluminum and Its Alloys " 70 Copper and Its Alloys 73 Lead and Its Alloys " ......................................... 76 Magnesium and Its Alloys 79 Titanium and Its Alloys " 81 Tin and Its Alloys 81 Zinc and Its Alloys. ........................................... 84 Chapter 5: Heat Treatment of Steel 85 Some of the Basics , 85 Heat Treating Equipment 95 Chapter 6: Tailoring the Properties of Nonferrous Alloys 103 Precipitation Hardening 104 Heat Treating of Aluminum Alloys 106 Heat Treating of Beryllium-Copper Alloys " 107 Heat Treating of Nickel-Base Superalloys " 110 Heat Treating of Copper-Zinc Alloys 112 Heat Treating of Titanium-Base Alloys " 113 Chapter 7: Hot Working and Cold Working of Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals 115 Hot Working Technology 115 Hot Extrusion Technology " 117 Cold Forming Technology 121 Chapter 8: Fabricability of Materials: A Key factor in Selection 133 Fabrication Properties of Ferrous Alloys 133 Fabrication Properties of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys 136 Joining Processes: Welding, Brazing, and Soldering 137 Chapter 9: The Material Selection Process 153 The Materials Battle 154 Selection Factors. ........................................... 154 Standards and Specifications ................................. 162 Chapter 10: Failure of Metals Under Service Conditions 165 Rupture, Wear, and Temperature Effects , 165 Brittle Fracture " 165 Ductile Fracture " 169 Fatigue Fracture 169 The Many Faces of Wear 171 Temperature-Induced Failures 180 Chapter 11: Coping with Corrosion 185 Galvanic Corrosion 186 Uniform Corrosion 187 Crevice Corrosion 188 Stress-Corrosion Cracking " 191 Corrosion Fatigue 193 Selective Leaching 194 Chapter 12: Quest for Quality 197 A Potpourri of Variability 197 Overview of Testing and Inspection Technology 199 Mechanical Testing 200 Nondestructive Testing , 205 Metallographic Examination , 209 Chapter 13: Progress by the Decade 213 1910-1920 , 213 1920-1930 214 vi 1930-1940 215 1940-1950 216 1950-1960 217 1960-1970 217 1970-1980 218 1980-1990 219 Glossary 221 Bibliography 259 Index 261 vii Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist Copyright © 1998 ASM International® Harry Chandler, p 1-10 All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1361/mfnm1998p001 www.asminternational.org CChhaapptteerr 11 TThhee AAcccciiddeennttaall BBiirrtthh ooff aa NNoo--NNaammee AAllllooyy IInn 11990066,, tthhrreeee yyeeaarrss aafftteerr tthhee ffiirrsstt ssuucccceessssffuull wwiitthh iinnssttrruuccttiioonnss ttoo rruunn iitt tthhrroouugghh aa sseerriieess ooff fflliigghhtt oofftthhee WWrriigghhttbbrrootthheerrss,, aaGGeerrmmaann rreesseeaarrcchh tteessttss ttoo ddeetteerrmmiinnee iittss pprrooppeerrttiieess ((FFiigg.. 11--22)).. TThhee mmeettaalllluurrggiisstt,, DDrr.. AAllffrreedd WWiillmm,, wwaass ccoommmmiiss ttiimmee wwaass sshhoorrttllyy bbeeffoorree nnoooonn,, aanndd JJaabblloonnsskkii ssiioonneedd bbyy tthhee PPrruussssiiaann ggoovveerrnnmmeenntt ttoo iinnvveenntt aann aasskkeedd ttoo ppuuttoofffftteessttiinngg uunnttiill tthhee ffoolllloowwiinngg MMoonn aalltteerrnnaattiivvee ttoo tthhee mmeettaall tthheenn uusseedd iinn ccaarrttrriiddggee ddaayy bbeeccaauussee hhee hhaadd aann aappppooiinnttmmeenntt ttoo kkeeeepp.. ccaasseess.. TThheeiirr pprreeffeerreennccee wwaass ffoorr aa ttyyppee ooffaalluummii WWiillmm ppeerrssuuaaddeedd hhiimm ttoo ddoo aaqquuiicckk hhaarrddnneessss tteesstt nnuumm hhaarrddeerr aanndd ssttrroonnggeerr tthhaann aannyytthhiinngg oonn tthhee bbeeffoorree lleeaavviinngg.. RReessuullttss wweerree lleessss tthhaann eennccoouurraagg mmaarrkkeett.. iinngg.. BBootthh hhaarrddnneessss aanndd ssttrreennggtthh wweerree mmuucchh TThhee ssttoorryy bbeeggiinnss oonn aa SSaattuurrddaayy mmoorrnniinngg iinn lloowweerr tthhaann WWiillmm hhaadd hhooppeedd ffoorr.. 11990066 iinn DDrr.. WWiillmm''ss llaabboorraattoorryy.. AAtt tthhiiss ppooiinntt,, hhee OOnn tthhee ffoolllloowwiinngg MMoonnddaayy,, mmuucchh ttoo tthhee ssuurr hhaadd ccoonncclluuddeedd tthhaatt ppuurree aalluummiinnuumm wwaass ttoooo ssoofftt pprriissee aanndd pplleeaassuurree ooffbbootthh mmeenn,, tthhee pprrooppeerrttiieess ooff ffoorr tthhee aapppplliiccaattiioonn,, aanndd hhaadd rruulleedd oouutt aa vvaarriieettyy tthhee mmeettaall wweerree bbeetttteerr tthhaann eexxppeecctteedd oorr hhooppeedd ooff ccooppppeerr--zziinncc aallllooyyss ((bbrraassss)) bbeeccaauussee tthheeyy wweerree ffoorr;; iinn ffaacctt,, tthheeyy nnooww wweerree oouuttssttaannddiinngg.. nnoott hheeaatt ttrreeaattaabbllee.. HHeeaatt ttrreeaattiinngg wwaass oonnee ooff tthhee SSttrreennggtthh,, ffoorr iinnssttaannccee,, wwaass tteenn ttiimmeess ggrreeaatteerr oonn mmeetthhooddss bbeeiinngg uusseedd ttoo uuppggrraaddee tthhee hhaarrddnneessss aanndd MMoonnddaayy tthhaann oonn SSaattuurrddaayy mmoorrnniinngg.. SSuubb ssttrreennggtthhooffmmaatteerriiaallss.. WWiillmmkknneewwtthhaattssoommeeoofftthhee sseeqquueennttllyy,, iitt wwaass lleeaarrnneedd tthhaatt mmaaxxiimmuumm pprrooppeerr aalluummiinnuumm aallllooyyss wweerree hheeaatt ttrreeaattaabbllee,, aanndd hhee ttiieess wweerree oobbttaaiinneedd wwiitthh tthhee ppaassssaaggee ooff ffoouurr oorr cchhoosseetthhiiss rroouuttee.. ffiivvee ddaayyss.. BBeeyyoonndd tthhiiss,, ssoommee--bbuutt nnoott qquuiittee aallll--ooff tthhee TThhee ddiissccoovveerryy wwaass aacccciiddeennttaall--aa ccoommmmoonn oocc ffaaccttss aarree kknnoowwnn.. FFoorr iinnssttaannccee,, iitt iiss kknnoowwnn tthhaatt ccuurrrreennccee dduuee ttoo tthhee mmaannnneerr iinn wwhhiicchh rreesseeaarrcchh ffoorr hhiiss eexxppeerriimmeennttDDrr.. WWiillmm:: wwaass ccoonndduucctteedd tthhoossee ddaayyss--aanndd WWiillmm wwaass uunn aabbllee ttoo eexxppllaaiinn hhooww aanndd wwhhyy hhee hhaadd aarrrriivveedd aatt •• MMaaddee aann aalluummiinnuumm--ccoappppeerr--mmaaggnneessiiuumm aall tthhee rreessuulltt hhee oobbttaaiinneedd,, aallssoo aa ccoommmmoonn ooccccuurr llooyy tthhaatt ccoonnttaaiinneedd 44%% ccooppppeerr aanndd 00..55%% rreennccee.. TThhee sscciieenncceeooffmmeettaalllluurrggyy wwaass iinn iittss eeaarrllyy mmaaggnneessiiuumm ssttaaggeess;; aanndd iinn tthhiiss ccaassee,, aa sscciieennttiiffiicc eexxppllaannaattiioonn •• HHeeaatt ttrreeaatteedd tthhee mmeettaall aatt aa tteemmppeerraattuurree ooff ffoorr wwhhaatt hhaadd hhaappppeenneedd wwaass uunnaavvaaiillaabbllee uunnttiill tthhee 552200°°CC ((11997700 OOFF)) iinn aa ssaalltt bbaatthh ffuurrnnaaccee llaatttteerr ddaayyss oofftthhee nneexxtt ddeeccaaddee.. ((CChhaapptteerr 22 iiss ddee ((sseeee FFiigg.. II--II)) vvootteedd ttoo tthhiiss aanndd rreellaatteedd ssuubbjjeeccttss..)) •• CCoooolleedd ((qquueenncchheedd)) tthhee mmeettaall rraappiiddllyy iinn FFuurrtthheerr,, tthhee aallllooyy mmaaddee bbyy tthhee nneeww hheeaatt ttrreeaatt wwaatteerr ddoowwnn ttoo rroooomm tteemmppeerraattuurree,, ffoolllloowwiinngg iinngg pprroocceessss ddiidd nnoott hhaavvee aa nnaammee,, nnoorr wwoouulldd iitt hheeaatt ttrreeaattmmeenntt hhaavvee aa kknnoowwnn uussee ffoorr sseevveerraall yyeeaarrss.. IIttss eevveennttuuaall nnaammee,, DDuurraalluummiinn,, wwaass sseelleecctteedd bbyy WWiillmm''ss nneexxtt WWiillmm''ss nneexxtt sstteepp iiss ooppeenn ttoo ccoonnjjeeccttuurree.. HHooww eemmppllooyyeerr,, DDiiiirreenneerr MMeettaallllwweerrkkee,, ttoo wwhhoomm hhee eevveerr,, iitt iiss ppoossssiibbllee tthhaatt wwhhiillee tthhee mmeettaall wwaass ssttiillll ssoolldd hhiiss ppaatteennttrriigghhttss iinn 11990099.. aatt rroooomm tteemmppeerraattuurree hhee rroolllleedd iitt ttoo aa tthhiinnnneerr DDiuirreenneerr ppuutt DDuurraalluummiinn oonn tthhee mmaarrkkeett aass aann ggaaggee,, ccaalllleedd sshheeeett.. TThhiiss pprroocceessss iiss kknnoowwnn aass eexxppeerriimmeennttaall aallllooyy,, sseelllliinngg ffoorr $$220000 ppeerr ppoouunndd ccoollddrroolllliinngg,, oorrccoolldd wwoorrkkiinngg.. (($$444400 ppeerr kkiillooggrraamm)).. ((BByy 11996644 tthhee pprriiccee ooffaalluu FFoolllloowwiinngg tthheessee pprreelliimmiinnaarriieess,, WWiillmm ggaavvee aa mmiinnuumm wwoouulldd bbee ddoowwnn ttoo 2244 cceennttss ppeerr ppoouunndd ssaammppllee ooff tthhee aallllooyy ttoo hhiiss aassssiissttaanntt JJaabblloonnsskkii,, aanndd wwoouulldd bbeeccoommee eevveenn cchheeaappeerr wwiitthh tthhee aaddoopp-- 2 I Metallurgyforthe Non-Metallurgist tion ofrecycling.) Initially, consistency in qual Besides inventing an alloy, Wilm unknow ity was a problem with Duralumin. Copper in ingly had discovered a process called solution the alloy was detrimental to its corrosion resis treating and natural aging. This process is still tance. The metal had a tendency to disintegrate extensively used today in treating aluminum and in random spots, which ultimately transformed othernonferrous and ferrous alloys. to a white powder. Today, a modified version of Duralumin ex Some Definitions ists as alloy 2017, an aluminum-copper alloy in the 2000 series (Fig. 1-3). These alloys are char Ferrous is aLatin word meaning iron. Iron is acterized by strength higher than that of plain the chief component of this family of metals, carbon steel and by improved machinability. On which includes wrought iron, carbon steels, al the negative side, corrosion resistance and weld loy steels, tool steels, and stainless steels. ability are limited. The nominal composition of Nonferrous metals, then, are the "other met alloy 2017 consists of 5.8% alloying elements, als" that do not belong to the ferrous family. the balance aluminum. Two of the alloying ele These include aluminum and aluminum alloys, ments, silicon and manganese, were not present copper and copper alloys, beryllium copper and in Duralumin. Generally, manganese increases other beryllium-containing alloys, magnesium strength and hardness, while silicon increases toughness and ductility. Usage ofalloy 2017 to and magnesium alloys, tin and tin alloys, lead day is limited. Rivets represent itschiefapplica and lead alloys, refractory metals and alloys tion in airplane construction. (niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, tungsten, and Curiously, aluminum was destined to become rhenium), titanium and titanium alloys, zirco the numberone material in aircraftconstruction, nium and hafnium, the precious metals (silver a distinction it still holds today. Its first signifi and silver alloys, gold and gold alloys, platinum cant application, however, was as aconstruction and platinum alloys, palladium and palladium material for dirigibles, in such forms as strip, alloys), uranium and uranium alloys, beryllium, girders, rivets, and other parts. rare earth metals, germanium and germanium Topowersupply Contactor Work-supportangle andsealtile Ceramicormetalpot Steelcasing Transformer Connectors Insulating material Interlockingtiles Fig. 1-1 Wilm annealed hisaluminum-copper-magnesiumalloyina saltbathfurnace. Shown hereis atypeofheattreatingfurnace in usetoday. Accidental Birthofa No-NameAlloyI 3 compounds, gallium and gallium compounds, turn ofthe century, for example, steel was being indium, and bismuth. heat treated without the support ofmetallurgical Some nonferrous alloys contain ferrous met theory. In 1900, the science ofmaking tool steel als as alloying elements. was virtually unknown. Researchers, mall1ly chemists, relied chiefly on chemical analysis, The Status of Metallurgy at which did not address most of the properties of interest. In those days, the saying was, "Science the Turn of the Century (1900) follows technology," the opposite of the situ ation today. Theory now precedes innovation. In the first decade ofthe 20th century, metal Metallurgy has become a knowledge-based pro lurgy stood essentially at the same spot it occu fession. pied at the end of the preceding century. Metal In the decade from 1900 to 1910, upgrades in lurgists mainly were concerned about making the hardness and strength of metals were com established metals available in greater quantlly, mon goals. Usual routes were: ofbetter quality, and at lower cos!. Materials ofconstruction were largely limited • Alloying, a process that involves coming up to those that had been around for centuries: with different combinations of metals (i.e., wood, stone, leather, brass, bronze, copper, and aluminum and copper) or metal/nonmetal cast or wrought iron. Less attention was paid to combinations (i.e., iron and carbon-which innovation than to making marginal improve is known as steel). Making adjustments in ments in what was available. Normally, doing the amounts ofindividual metals in an alloy research meant working in isolation on subjects is another approach. chosen without regard for the marketplace. • Cold working, or deforming metals by such Lacking the benefits of established metallur means as rolling, bending, or stretching. gical science, the metallurgist had to rely on This is an alternative method ofstrengthen experience, intuition, hunches, and/or luck. In ing. novation was a trial-and-error process. Up 10Ihe • Heat treating. which is often used in con junction with alloying or cold working. In this instance, desired results are obtained by healing and cooling solid metals. Four Turning Points in Technology Today's awesome metals technology-the re sults of which are so much around us daily that we tend to take them for granted-can trace its beginnings to the followirig events in the first decade ofthe 20th century: Fig. 1-3 Microstructure of an aluminum-eop per-magnesium alloy (alloy 2024) similar in Fig. 1-2 Wilm's assistant tested the new alu compositiontoWilm'salloy(now2017).lnthis minum alloy for both hardness and strength. instance, thealloywascoldrolled, solutionan Shownhere isatensiletesterforsteel. nealed, andaged. 4 I Metallurgyfarthe Nan-Metallurgist • 1900: Frederick Taylor and Maunsel White plication because tool steels are subjected to of Bethlehem Steel Company invented a high temperatures in service, and tungsten has high-impact tungsten carbide tool steel that the highest melting point of any metal. It melts outperformed the competition worldwide. at 3410 °C (6170 OF), is extremely hard (to re • 1903: Orville and Wilbur Wright succeeded sist wear), and is two and a half times heavier in flying their airplane, a wood, cloth, and than iron (a property taken advantage ofin bal metal structure. ancing the wings of jet fighter planes-being • 1906: Dr. Alfred Wilm invented a new superheavy, a small amount of the metal does process for heat treating aluminum alloys. thejob). • 1908: Henry Ford introduced his Model T, Mushet had used 9% tungsten in his composi which featured a strong, weight-saving va tion. Taylorand White doubled the tungsten, in nadiumalloy. creased the chromium content, and used a higher hardening temperature in heat treating. TheStoryofaNewToolSteel Their composition included 18% tungsten, 4.25% chromium, 1.10% vanadium, and 0.75% Taylor and White demonstrated their tungsten carbon (Fig. 1-4). A similar high-speed steel carbide alloy at the Paris Exposition of1900. To available today is in the T-series of alloys. Its show it, plain carbon steel forgings were ma composition includes 18% tungsten, 4% chro chined in a lathe under normal working condi mium, I% vanadium, and 0.75% carbon. A tions. The heat generated in machining turned the tool steel red, but it did not lose its edge. Tungsten carbide is one of the hardest sub stances known. A German firm, Ludwig Loewe Company, was impressed and took several ofthe new tools back to Berlin for testing. The tools were in stalled in a lathe and a drill press and operated under conditions intended to determine maxi mum performance. It is reported that in less than a month the lathe and drill press were re duced to scrap. The tools, however, were still in good shape. In one stroke, every machine tool in the world became obsolete. The machines did not have the capability needed to fully utilize the new alloy. Existing machine tools had to be redesigned to live with the stresses of high speed metal removal. The Taylor-White steel was a modified ver sion of a tungsten alloy invented by Mushet in 1868. Tungsten is an excellent metal for the ap- Fig. 1·5 The Wright brothers used a forged nickel-chromium alloy steel crankshaft in their firstplane. Forgingimprovesstrengthbyorient Fig. 1-4 Microstructure of an 18% tungsten ingthestructureofa metal in the directionthat high-speed tool steel ofthe type developed by callsforstrength in service. Notethe longitudi TaylorandWhite nalflowlinesinthishookforging.
Description:The list of books you might like
