Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia: The Armenian Contribution to Military Architecture in the Middle Ages

282 Pages·2019·57.577 MB·English

by  Dweezil Vandekerckhove

Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia
History of Warfare
Editors
Kelly DeVries (Loyola University Maryland)
John France (University of Wales, Swansea)
Paul Johstono (The Citadel, South Carolina)
Michael S. Neiberg (United States Army War College, Pennsylvania)
Frederick Schneid (High Point University, North Carolina)
VOLUME 128
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/hw
Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia
The Armenian Contribution to Military Architecture in the Middle
Ages
By
Dweezil Vandekerckhove
leiden | boston
Cover illustration:
Tece file:
Looking northeast at the interior lower level of the small castle of Tece. ©Photograph by Dweezil Vandekerckhove.
P1030397 file:
Looking northeast at the inner bailey of Yilan Kalesi, Turkish for “Snake Castle,” most likely the best preserved Armenian castle in Cilicia.
©Photograph by Dweezil Vandekerckhove.
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The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov
Names: Vandekerckhove, Dweezil, author.
Title: Medieval fortifications in Cilicia : the Armenian contribution to
military architecture in the Middle Ages / by Dweezil Vandekerckhove.
Other titles: Armenian contribution to military architecture in the Middle
Ages
Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, [2020] | Series: History of warfare,
1385–7827 ; v.128 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019041358 (print) | LCCN 2019041359 (ebook) | ISBN
9789004400085 (hardback) | ISBN 9789004417410 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Fortification--Turkey--Cilicia--History. | Military art and
science--History--Medieval, 500–1500. | Turkey--Antiquities. |
Cilicia--Antiquities. | Architecture, Armenian. |
Cilicia--History--Armenian Kingdom, 1080-1375.
Classification: LCC UG432.C64 V36 2020 (print) | LCC UG432.C64 (ebook) |
DDC 623/.1095640902--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019041358
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019041359
Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface.
ISSN 1385-7827
ISBN 978-90-04-40008-5 (hardback)
ISBN 978-90-04-41741-0 (e-book)
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For my wife Emily and my parents Geert & Marijke
∵

Contents
Preface  xi
Acknowledgements  xiii
Abbreviations  xiv
List of Illustartions  xv
1 Sources and Historiography  1
1.1 Historiography: The Discovery of Armenian Cilicia  1
1.2 Sources  3
1.2.1 The Armenian Sources  3
1.2.2 The Syrian Sources  6
1.2.3 The Greek Sources  6
1.2.4 The Latin and Frankish Sources  8
1.2.5 The Arabic Sources  10
1.3 Archaeological Research  11
2 Historical Outline of Cilicia (969–1375)  14
2.1 The Geography of the Armenian Kingdom  14
2.1.1 Cilicia Trachea (or Rough Cilicia)  14
2.1.2 Cilicia Pedias  15
2.1.3 Rubenid and Hetʿumid Region in the Taurus Mountains  16
2.1.4 Amanus Region  17
2.2 Armenian Settlement (969–1097)  19
2.2.1 From the Caucasus to the Mediterranean Sea  19
2.2.2 The Establishment of Armenian Baronies in the Eastern Mediterranean Coastlands  21
2.2.3 The Origin of the Hetʿumids and Rubenids in Cilicia  23
2.3 Norman Cilicia (1097–1112)  27
2.3.1 The Arrival of the First Crusade in Cilicia (August–September 1097)  27
2.3.2 A Multitude of Rulers: Hetʻumids, Rubenids, Franks, and Seljuks in the Cilician Plain
(September–October 1097)  28
2.3.3 Tancred, Norman Master of Cilicia (1097–1099)  29
2.3.4 The Second Norman Conquest of Cilicia and the Battle of Harran (1101–1104)  31
2.3.5 The Expansion of the Principality of Antioch and the Treaty of Devol (1106–1112)  32
2.4 Towards an Armenian Kingdom (1112–1198)  33
2.4.1 Komnenian Intervention (1081–1143)  33
2.4.2 The Rise of the Rubenids (1143–1188)  36
2.4.3 From Baron to King  38
2.5 The Armenian Kingdom (1198–1375)  41
2.5.1 Levon and the Role of the Military Orders  41
2.5.2 Hetʿum I (r. 1226–1269)  45
2.5.3 From the Rise of the Mamluks to the Fall of the Armenian Kingdom (1269–1375)  48
3 Fortifications and Geography  51
3.1 Fortifications in Their Historical Landscape  51
3.1.1 Cilicia: Crossroads between the West and East  51
3.1.2 Settlement Patterns in Byzantine Cilicia (450–650)  51
3.1.3 Cilicia on the Islamic-Byzantine frontier: The Construction of the Frontier or al-thughūr  52
3.1.4 Cilicia on the Islamic-Byzantine Frontier: A Process of Incastellamento or Kastroktisia  54
3.1.4.1 Byzantine Skirmishing Tactics in the Taurus Region (650–950)  54
3.1.4.2 Process of Incastellamento or Kastroktisia  55
viii Contents
3.1.4.3 Phrouria, Aplèkta, Kastra, and Kataphygia  56
3.1.4.4 Arab Occupation of the Cilician Plain and Amanus Mountains (650–950)  58
3.1.4.5 Byzantine Re-conquest and Construction of Fortifications  60
3.2 Strategy and the Spatial Distribution of Fortifications  61
3.2.1 General Principles  61
3.2.2 A Google Earth Analysis  64
3.2.2.1 The Spatial Distribution of Fortifications  64
3.2.2.2 Newly Built Constructions (1075–1350)  65
3.2.2.3 Refortification and Occupation  67
3.2.3 Land Routes, Rivers and Topography as Variables for the Distribution of Fortifications  69
3.2.3.1 Cilicia Trachea  69
3.2.3.2 Hetʿumid Region  71
3.2.3.3 Cilicia Pedias  72
3.2.3.4 Rubenid Region  74
3.2.3.5 Amanus  75
3.2.4 The Idea of Intervisibility  75
3.3 Towards a More Dyanamic Model  77
3.3.1 Cities  77
3.3.1.1 The Hetʿumid and Rubenid Barony, Two Spheres of Influence, 1075–1198  78
3.3.1.2 The Armenian Kingdom, Tarsus and Sis (1198–1266)  79
3.3.1.3 Fortifications and the Mamluk Threat (1266–1375)  81
3.3.1.4 The Armenian Kingdom, Zones of Concentration (1198–1375)  83
3.3.1.5 The Role of the Monasteries  85
4 The Form and Functions of the Armenian Fortifications in Cilicia  87
4.1 Byzantine, Arab and Crusader Inheritance  87
4.1.1 The Byzantine Inheritance  87
4.1.2 The Arab Inheritance  89
4.1.3 The Crusader Inheritance  91
4.1.3.1 Principality of Antioch  91
4.1.3.2 Hospitallers  92
4.1.3.3 Teutonic Knights  95
4.1.3.4 Templars  96
4.2 Typology of Surviving Armenian Fortifications  96
4.2.1 Raisons d’être and Functions  96
4.2.2 A Typology for Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia  97
4.2.2.1 Watch Posts  97
4.2.2.2 Quadrangular Enclosure Castle with Projecting Towers (Forts, Quadriburgia,
Castella, or Castra)  99
4.2.2.3 Tower Keeps/Hall Houses  100
4.2.2.4 Keep Tower and Bailey  102
4.2.2.5 Castle without Enclosure  103
4.2.2.6 Enclosure Castle  103
4.2.2.7 Fortress/Citadel  104
4.2.2.8 Sea Castle  104
4.2.3 Conclusion  105
4.3 Rural Settlements with Fortifications  105
4.3.1 Introduction  105
4.3.2 Catalogue of Settlements  107
4.3.2.1 Aladağ  107
4.3.2.2 Andıl  107
4.3.2.3 Babaoğlan  109
Contents ix
4.3.2.4 Çem  110
4.3.2.5 Fındıkpınar  111
4.3.2.6 Oğlan (near Kızlar)  112
4.3.2.7 Sinap (near Lampron)  112
4.3.2.8 Vahga  115
4.3.3 Conclusion  115
5 The Characteristics of Armenian Military Architecture  117
5.1 The Influence of Byzantine Military Architecture  117
5.1.1 Siting and Lay-out of Byzantine Fortifications  118
5.1.2 Byzantine Masonry  118
5.1.3 Byzantine Mural Towers  120
5.2 Armenian Military Architecture  120
5.2.1 Armenian Masonry  121
5.2.2 Theoretical Background  121
5.2.3 A Model for Armenian Masonry  122
5.2.4 Gateways  127
5.2.5 Posterns  130
5.2.6 Design of Gateways  131
5.2.7 Other Components of Armenian Fortifications  133
5.2.7.1 Curtain Walls  134
5.2.7.2 Battlements, Hoardings (bretêche/brattices), and Slit-Machicolation  135
5.2.7.3 Arrow-Slits  136
5.2.7.4 Round -and D-Shaped Towers  137
5.3 Conclusion  138
6 General Conclusion  139
Appendix 1  141
Appendix 2  144
Appendix 3  160
Bibliography  252
Primary Sources  252
Secondary Sources  254
Index  264