Introduction to Occupation : the Art of Science and Living.

381 Pages·2013·4.38 MB·English

by  Elizabeth, Christiansen, Charles, Townsend

ISBN 978-1-29203-904-6
9 781292 039046
Introduction to Occupation Christiansen Townsend Second Edition
Introduction to Occupation:
The Art of Science and Living
Charles Christiansen Elizabeth Townsend
Second Edition
Pearson New International Edition

Introduction to Occupation:

The Art of Science and Living
Charles Christiansen Elizabeth Townsend
Second Edition
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ISBN 10: 1-292-03904-3
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-03904-6
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P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y
Table of Contents
1. An Introduction to Occupation by Charles Christiansen & Elizabeth Townsend
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 1
2. The Study of Occupation by Helene Polatajko
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 35
3. What Is Occupation? Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Defining and Classifying Human Activity by
Jennifer Jarman
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 59
4. What Do People Do? By Andrew Harvey & Wendy Pentland
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 79
5. Occupational Development by Jane Davis & Helene Polatajko
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 113
6. The Occupational Nature of Social Groups by Charles Christiansen & Elizabeth Townsend
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 153
7. Occupational Transitions: Work to Retirement by Hans Jonsson
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 189
8. Occupational Balance and Well-being by Catherine Backman
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 209
9. Occupations and Places by Toby Ballou Hamilton
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 229
10. Work, Occupation, and Leisure by Jiri Zuzanek
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 259
11. Occupational Deprivation: Understanding Limited Participation by Gail Whiteford
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 281
12. Occupational Justice by Robin Stadnyk, Elizabeth Townsend & Ann Wilcock
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 307
I
3763137
13. Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy: Occupation at Center Stage by Matthew Molineux
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 337
14. Glossary
Charles Christiansen/Elizabeth Townsend 363
Index 371
II
An Introduction to Occupation
Charles H. Christiansen and Elizabeth A. Townsend
OBJECTIVES
1. Define key concepts related to occupations, including occupation, activity, task,
habits, routines, automaticity, and embedded occupations.
2. Discuss the different ways in which occupations create meaning.
3. Describe several examples of occupational classifications/taxonomies discussed in
this chapter.
4. Identify specific biological, psychological, and contextual factors that influence
occupational choice and patterns.
5. Discuss current evidence of the relationships between occupations and health,
well-being, and participation.
6. Summarize how understanding of occupation is enhanced after reading about
the history of occupations, sleep, leisure, play, and paid work.
KEY WORDS
Automaticity Occupational classification/taxonomy
Embedded occupations Occupational habits
Everyday life Occupational routines
Folk taxonomy Occupational science
Habit Occupations
Human occupations Routine
Narrative Taxonomy
Occupation
www.prenhall.com/christiansen
The Internet provides an exciting means for interacting with this chapter and for enhancing your
understanding of humans’ experiences with occupations and the organization of occupations in
society. Use the address above to access the interactive Companion Website created specifically
to accompany this chapter. Here you will find an array of self-study material designed to help you
gain a richer understanding of the concepts presented in this chapter.
From Chapter 1 of Introduction to Occupation: The Art and Science of Living, 2/e. Charles H. Christiansen. Eliz-
abeth A. Townsend. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved. 1
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An Introduction to Occupation
CHAPTER PROFILE
In this chapter, the term occupation is defined and examined broadly to provide a
context for viewing the daily pursuits of humans. The chapter seeks to establish a
beginning point and to introduce an occupational perspective of human life and
s ociety. Several key questions regarding occupation are posed. These questions
enable the exploration of concepts regarding how occupations have been defined
and classified in the past. Human time use reveals broad types of human endeavor,
each having implications for behavior, development, social interaction, well-being,
and participation in society. Factors influencing occupational engagement are
explored, and a brief history of occupations through the ages is summarized from
the work of Robert Bing. The chapter closes with a review of ideas related to the
perceived beneficial effects of human occupation on individuals and our partici-
pation in societies. It is acknowledged that the chapter is written largely from the
perspective of Western cultures.
INTRODUCTION
The word occupation in English is derived from the Latin occupatio, meaning “to occupy
or to seize.” To be occupied is to use and even seize control of time and space (or
place) as a person engages in a recognizable life endeavor. Daily human occupations
are invested with form and a sense of purpose, meaning, cultural style, and
social/economic significance or power (1, 2). Those who take an occupational per-
spective of life and society raise questions and seek answers about occupations. One
looks at life and society using an occupational lens to understand what people are
doing, or want and need to do to survive, be healthy, and live well as valued citizens.
Conversely with such a lens, one can look at systems and society to understand how
occupations are named, classified, and organized in different economies and socio-
cultural practices. Our reference to human occupation includes more than engage-
ment in work. Everyday lives reflect participation in a broad range of pursuits.
Occupational engagement—the occupying of place and time in a rich tapestry of
experience, purpose, and attached meaning—is how we broadly define human occu-
pation (2).
UNDERSTANDING THE COMPLEXITY
OF OCCUPATION
Humans have occupied their lives with the goal-directed pursuits necessary for exis-
tence and well-being since the dawning of time. As group-living animals, early humans
used primitive or proto-occupations to ensure their survival. They cooperated in
their pursuit of food, water, and shelter and in protecting and nurturing their off-
spring. Undoubtedly, these early group behaviors were genetically influenced as part
of nature’s adaptations for survival of the human species. The evolution of language
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enabled meanings to be attached to occupations and events, and as the human brain
increased in size, greater intelligence led to new ways to adapt, survive, and contend
with the challenges of nature. The division of labor within groups is an example of
this. As humans evolved, so did occupations. Yet, even now within different cultural
groups, we can still identify distinct types of occupational pursuits necessary for sur-
vival and maintenance. In considering these ideas, it is useful to think about the
socioculturally diverse roles individuals play in serving the needs of groups. Social
roles, such as mother, father, and leader are, at their core, defined by the occupations
that are used to maintain families, groups, communities, and organizations. These
differ in context, depending, for instance, on cultural rituals and social conditions.
Box 1 provides a brief glimpse of how occupations have changed since early history.
BOX 1 A History of Occupation
An understanding of occupations today is better achieved if a person has an appre-
ciation for what people did during previous eras. Archeologists and anthropologists
agree that from the dawn of time, humans’ primary purpose was to survive. As early
humans developed language and intellect, adaptation to the forces of nature
required a division of labor. In very early times men were the foragers and gather-
ers, and women, being child-bearers, were the preservers and fashioners of materi-
als for eating and bartering. The basic occupations at this time included agriculture,
the making of essential tools, and the creation of pottery, textiles, and basketry (59).
Although an in-depth exploration of the history of work and leisure could eas-
ily fill volumes, a review of everyday occupations through the ages and how these
influenced (and were influenced by) the cultures and attitudes of the time provides
a useful context in which to view the present. History illustrates how work and play
coexisted and were jointly influenced by the cultures and environments of the times.
In later centuries, the Greeks were among the first advanced culture to appre-
ciate the importance of work and leisure (60). Work was seen as the gods’ curse
on humankind. The Greek word for work was ponos, meaning a sense of a heavy
burdensome task, downright drudgery. Within this culture, however, the division
of labor was based on status within the culture. There was little dignity or value in
work, other than as a means for avoiding hunger and death, or for reaching pros-
perity and the opportunity for leisure. Slaves, peasants, and craftsmen did the
work of gathering and preserving raw materials and fashioning goods. A middle
class was made up of merchants, who did the bartering. The nobility and priests
became the upper class, whose work was to indulge in the pleasurable occupa-
tions of life, such as teaching, discovering, thinking, or composing music. At this
time, leisure became one of the foundations of Western culture. The English word
school is derived from the Greek word skole, for the place where education and
teaching occurred (60).
(continued)
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BOX 1 Continued
Three prominent Greek philosophers provided classic insights regarding work
and the pursuit of the thoughtful life (61). Socrates was known to frequent the
shops of Athens, observing artisans at work, doing what he thought were nonessen-
tial tasks. Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that well-being did not come from
the pursuit of pleasure (hedonism); rather, it came from the meditative life
(leisure). Plato, late in his writings, declared that life must be lived as play, play-
ing certain games and making sacrifices. In this manner a person could gain favor
with the gods and provide a defense against enemies (62).
The Roman philosophers also held views about occupation (63). Cicero, the
great orator and philosopher, claimed there were but two worthy occupations: agri-
culture and business, especially if the latter led one to an honorable and stately
retirement into the quiet of the countryside. The Hebrews also held an admiration
for work and the meditative life. The Talmud states that labor is a holy occupation,
and even if one does not need to work to survive, he or she must nevertheless labor,
for idleness results in an early death (64).
Alfred the Great (849–899 AD), King of Wessex, established the right of free-
born Englishmen to the three-eights division of the day into work, rest, and leisure.
During this same time various festivals emerged, particularly to recognize sacred
or seasonal events. Consecrations, sacrifices, sacred dances and contests, and per-
formances were all occupations for celebrating a festival. During the period from
350 to 800AD, people returned to a simpler life (65); yet, the class stratification
remained as peasant, merchant, and nobleman. In the early 16th century, Martin
Luther believed that work and serving God were synonymous, and one was
expected to do the best job possible, thereby earning dignity. One was called to
one’s work because all daily occupations were divinely inspired (66).
In the 17th century, a Frenchman, John Calvin, whose writings have had a sig-
nificant impact on Western cultures, added to the prevailing beliefs by declaring
there was no room for idleness, luxury, or any activity that softened the soul (67).
Meditation was not acceptable because Calvin believed that God was not in the
habit of revealing himself to humans through thinking. A person was expected to
extract the greatest good from work, including a profit. Successful work would
result in wealth, which was to be used to care for those less fortunate. This link
between work and wealth became known as the Protestant work ethic.
The Agrarian Age (c.1800–1880) brought the tools necessary to produce the
goods required by the world. Because most occupations were seasonal, the worker
could control periods of leisure and rest. This ended with the onset of the Indus-
trial Revolution, beginning in the middle of the 18th century, and lasting for one
hundred years. Time took over as the key to nearly all daily occupations. One no
longer worked at home in what often had come to be thought of as “cottage indus-
tries.” The worker left home to work in large buildings, with large numbers of
individuals, often accomplishing the same occupations alongside one another.
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Machinery replaced tools as the focus of labor. Compensation was determined by
someone other than the worker and was based on the clock, usually displayed
prominently in the workplace. This was the beginning of paid occupations in the
industrialized world.
During the industrial revolution, leisure occupations departed from the home
and became centered in the community. Many factory owners assumed responsi-
bility for their workers’ play time. An example was the community established by
the Pullman Company, south of Chicago. The town was carefully laid out to include
a wide variety of parks and structures for the pleasure of all members of the work-
ers’ families. Despite this, there was considerable unrest, and strikes often occurred
over wages and the adequacy and control of leisure time.
During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the U.S. federal government
assisted with numerous occupational programs, including the WPA, or Works
Progress Administration (68). As one WPA enrollee said after just three weeks on
the job: “Now I can look my children straight in the eyes. I’ve gained my self-
respect. It’s different now” (42, p. 812). Allied nations rallied behind the war
effort. Yet, there was time for leisure occupations. Movie attendance set new
records. Nightclubs, sporting events, vacations, and entertainment at home, such
as listening to the radio, reading paperbacks, and various parlor games, became
popular leisure occupations (69).
The present era, sometimes known as the Postindustrial or Information Age,
was described by Ferguson as a social transformation resulting from personal
transformation—change from the inside out (70). Naisbitt claimed that Western
society was reluctantly leaving behind the Industrial Age and entering the Infor-
mation Age, where the new wealth was in know-how (71). In the current era, with
the universal two-income family, leisure occupations have undergone a drastic
change. Cross says that there is now a stressed leisure class with great inequities
between men and women. Women in the workplace return home to care for chil-
dren and housework. They are frequently denied the after-work leisure time
enjoyed by many men. Cross speculates that home-based entertainment, such as
rented movies and high-quality sound systems, are used as convenient substitutes
for other forms of leisure, but probably fall short of giving the satisfaction that
other more-involved options might (72).
We can speculate about how attitudes toward work and leisure occupations are
influenced by cultures. We can ask why many people are feeling less satisfied with
their work and leisure than in the past. Or we can consider how the information
age might influence the types and locations of occupations in the future. A bet-
ter approach is to study occupations systematically, taking a broad look at the
many dimensions that influence everyday human pursuits. Durant stated it well
when he observed: “The present is the past rolled up for action, and the past is the
present unrolled for understanding” (73, p. viii).
The History of Occupation was written by the late Dr. Robert K. Bing (1932–2004).
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