Introduction to Fluid Mechanics PDF
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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Second Edition Yasuki Nakayama Butterworth-HeinemannisanimprintofElsevier TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates Copyright©2018ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. ThisbookistranslatedfromRyutai-no-Rikigaku2ndedition(inJapanese)publishedbyYOKENDOCO.LTD, 5-30-15Hongo,Bunkyo-ku,Tokyo113-0033Japan,copyright2013byYasukiNakayam. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenter andtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenour understanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusing anyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethods theyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhavea professionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliability foranyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise, orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-08-102437-9 ForinformationonallButterworth-Heinemannpublicationsvisitour websiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:MathewDeans AcquisitionEditor:BrianGuerin EditorialProjectManager:AnnaValutkevich ProductionProjectManager:SuryaNarayananJayachandran Designer:MarkRogers TypesetbyTNQBooksandJournals About the Author Yasuki Nakayama was an internationally influential and respected expert in both mechanical engi- neering and visualization. During his career he held various important posts in Japan, including as PresidentoftheFutureTechnologyResearchInstitute,asProfessoroffluidmechanicsandvisualization atTokaiUniversity,andattheNationalRailwayResearchInstitute.HewasalsoaVisitingProfessorat Southampton University, President of the Visualization Society of Japan, and Director of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineering. He published more than 180 research papers and more than 10 books and was a cofounder of the Journal of Visualization. His research earned him many awards and distinctionsincludingtheMedalwithPurpleRibbonfromtheEmperorofJapan.Hesadlypassedaway in2016 before this book was published. xi Advisory Editor Biographies KazuyasuIzawaisanindependentconsultantinthefieldoflubrication,providingtechnicalservicesto industrial companies and lubrication management training sessions to lubrication engineers. He was grantedandreceivedhisdoctorate(Engineering)inthefieldoffluidpowercontrolundertheguidance ofProfessor Nakayama. MakotoOkihasabackgroundinfluidsengineering.HeiscurrentlyaProfessoratTokaiUniversityin Japan, where he teaches and researches ininformation technology. Katsumi Aoki engaged in research and education of fluid dynamics and mechanical engineering for 40yearsattheFacultyofEngineering,GraduateSchoolofTokaiUniversity.Currently,heisaprofessor emeritusat TokaiUniversity and an advisor totechnology companies. REVIEWER BIOGRAPHY John Tippetts is an independent consultant in the fields of mechanical and industrial engineering, based in Sheffield, UK. xiii Preface Thisbookwaswrittenasatextbookorguidebookonfluidmechanicsforstu- dents or junior engineersstudyingmechanicalor civilengineering.Therecent progress in the science of visualization and computational fluid dynamics is astounding.Inthisbook,efforthasbeenmadetointroducestudents/engineers to fluid mechanics by making explanations easy to understand, including recent information andcomparing the theorieswith actual phenomena. Fluidmechanicshashithertobeendividedinto“hydraulics”,dealingwiththe experimental side, and “hydrodynamics”, dealing with the theoretical side. In recent years, however, both have merged into an inseparable single science. A great deal was contributed by developments in the science of visualization and by the progress in computational fluid dynamics using advances in com- puters.This book is written from this point of view. Thefollowing featuresare included in the book: 1. Many illustrations, photographs,and items of interest are presented for easy reading. 2. Portraitsketches of 18 selectedpioneers who contributed to the development offluidmechanics are inserted, together with brief descriptionsof their achievements in the field. 3. Related major booksand papers are presented in footnotesto facilitate advanced study. 4. Exercises appear at the ends ofchapters to test understanding of the chaptertopic. 5. Specialemphasisis placedon flowvisualization andcomputational fluid dynamicsby including 25 colorimages in the frontispiece sectiontoassistunderstanding.The14imagesinthepreviousedition havebeen revised andthe 25 images are selected for the revision. 6. Many computational fluid dynamics and flowvisualization videos (eBook)andillustrationsarereplacedoraddedinthesecondedition of the book. xv xvi Preface Allchaptershavebeenreviewedandmanychangesinmostchaptershavebeen madetobetterunderstandfluidmechanics.Amongthem,Chapter15,Compu- tational Fluid Dynamics, especially has the most significant modification as a resultof tremendous development inthe last fewdecades. Professor YasukiNakayama sadlypassed away in 2016 at the age of 99 years. He had been preparing the second edition of this book just before his death. His strong will topublishthis book made us fulfillhis last wish. WewishtoacknowledgeDrJohnTippettsinSheffield,UK,whoproofreadthe book andprovided manyhelpful suggestions for improving the manuscript. WeexpressourspecialappreciationtoYokendoCo.Ltdforgivingpermission tousefiguresandillustrationspresentintheJapaneseversionofthisbookfor the second edition of Englishbook. We would like to express special appreciation to The Visualization Society of Japan for permission to use various proceedings, journals and other publications. (cid:1) Our appreciation also goes to ANSYS, Inc. for permission to use ANSYS Fluent(cid:1) 17.0 for creating animation of fluid flow by computational fluid dynamicsforeBook. Finally, we thank the editorial and publication staff of Elsevier for their great assistance andcooperation. Kazuyasu Izawa Makoto Oki Katsumi Aoki CHAPTER 1 History of Fluid Mechanics 1.1 FLUID MECHANICS IN EVERYDAY LIFE Thereisairaroundus,andthereareriversandseasnearus.‘Theflowofariver neverceases.Theriverenduresbutthewaterforeverchanges.Bubblesfloating on the stagnant water now vanish and then develop but never remain.’ So stated Kamo no Choumei, the famous, 13th century essayist of Japan, in the prologueofHo(cid:1)jo(cid:1)ki,hiscollectionofessays.Suchamovementofgasorliquid (collectivelycalledfluid)iscalledthe‘flow’andthestudyofthisfieldiscalled ‘fluid mechanics’. While the flows of air in the atmosphere and water in rivers and the sea are flows of our concern, so also are the flows of water and sewage, in gas pipes, irrigationcanals,andtheflowaroundrockets,airplanes,bullettrains,automo- biles and ships. The resistance which acts on such bodies is a ubiquitous problem. Thetrajectoriesofballsinbaseballandgolfareallinfluencedbyflow.Further- more, the movement of people on the platform of a railway station or at the intersection of a street can be regarded as forms of flow. In a wider sense, the movement of social phenomena and information, and history could be regarded as flows, too. In these ways we have a close relationship with flow, so ‘fluid mechanics’ which studies flow, is really a natural topic for our attention. 1.2 THE BEGINNING OF ‘FLUID MECHANICS’ Thescienceofflowhasbeenclassifiedintohydraulics,whichdevelopedfrom experimentalstudies,andhydrodynamicswhich developedthroughtheoret- icalstudies.Inrecentyears,however,bothhavemergedintothesingledisci- pline called fluid mechanics. Hydraulics developed as a purely empirical science with practical techniques beginninginprehistoricaltimes.Asourancestorssettledtoengageinfarming and their hamlets developed into villages, the continuous supply of a proper 1 IntroductiontoFluidMechanics.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102437-9.00001-2 Copyright©2018ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. 2 CHAPTER 1: History ofFluidMechanics quantity of water and the transport of essential food and materials posed the most important problem. In this sense, it is believed that hydraulics was bornin the utilization ofwater channelsand ships. Prehistoric relics of irrigation canals were discovered in Egypt and Mesopota- mia, and it has been confirmed that canals had been constructed more than 4000years BC. Water in cities is said to have begun in Jerusalem, where a reservoir to store water and a masonry channel to carry the water were constructed. Water canalswerealsoconstructedinGreeceandotherplaces.Aboveall,however, it was the Romans who constructed aqueducts throughout the Roman Empire. Even today their remains are still visible in many places in Europe (Fig. 1.1). The city water system in those days conveyed relatively clear water from far awaytofountains,bathsandpublicbuildings.Citizensthenfetchedthewater fromwatersupplystationsathighstreetcorners,etc.Thequantityofwaterused perdaybyacitizeninthosedaysissaidtobeapproximately180L.Today,the amountofwaterusedpercapitaperdayinanaveragehouseholdissaidtobe approximately 240L. Therefore, according to this measure even about 2000years ago, an impressive degree of amenitywas attained. As stated above, the history of the city water system is very old. But in the development process of city water systems, to transport water effectively, the shape and size of the water conduit had to be designed and its inclination FIGURE1.1 RestoredarchofRomanaqueductinCampaniaPlain,Italy. 1.2 The Beginningof ‘Fluid Mechanics’ 3 orsupplypressurehadtobeadjustedtoovercomewallfrictionintheconduit. This gave rise to much invention and progress in overcoming hydraulic problems. Ontheotherhand,theoriginoftheshipisnotclear,butitiseasytoimagine the course of progress from log to raft, from manual propulsion to sails and from river to ocean navigation. The Phoenicians and Egyptians built huge, excellent ships. The relief work shown in Fig. 1.2, which was made about 2700 BC, clearly depicts a ship which existed at that time. The Greeks also left various records of ships. One of them is a beautiful picture of a ship depictedonanoldGrecianvase,asshowninFig.1.3.Astheseobjectsindicate, FIGURE1.2 ReliefofancientEgyptianship. FIGURE1.3 AncientGreekshipdepictedonoldvase. 4 CHAPTER 1: History ofFluidMechanics itwasbyprogressinshipbuildingandalsonavigationtechniquesthatallowed much fundamental hydraulic knowledge to be accumulated. Anothernoteworthyfindingisthediscoveryoftheworld’sfirstvortexproduced by the Jomon people. A Jomon pot, shown in Fig. 1.4, was made about 5000years ago in Japan and the vortex pattern depicted on the side wall is the world’s first to show twin vortices and Kármán vortices separately.1,2 In addition, many pots decorated with simple depictions of Kármán vortices havebeen discovered in this region. Beforeproceedingtodescribethedevelopment ofhydraulics,theRenaissance periodofLeonarddaVinciinparticularshouldberecalled.Popularlyheiswell known as a great artist, but he was an excellent scientist, too. He was so well versed in the laws of natural science that he stated that ‘a body gives air the same force as the resistance which air gives the body’. These statements pre- ceded Newton’s law of gravity and the third law of motion (law of action and reaction). FIGURE1.4 Earthenwarewithflameorwatervortexornamentation,3000yearsBC(unearthedlocation,Umataka, Niigata,Japan).1,2 1TheNiigataPrefecturalMuseumofHistory,CountryofEarthenPotswithaFlameDesign,Niigata NippoJigyoushaCorporation,2009,88. 2Y.Nakayama,etal.,JapanSocietyforArchaeologicalInformation10(1)(2004)1.
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