Industrial Applications of X-Ray Diffraction

1060 Pages·1999·194.801 MB·English

by  Frank Smith

Page i
Industrial Applications of X-Ray Diffraction
edited by
Frank H. Chung
Sherwin-Williams Company
Chicago, Illinois
Deane K. Smith
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
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ISBN: 0-8247-1992-1
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PREFACE
When Marcel Dekker approached us to write a book on X-ray diffraction, we deliberated for some time, then made
the resolution that the new book must be unique, useful, and up-to-date. An extensive survey indicated that there were
many excellent books on X-ray diffraction; however, the existing books were concerned mainly with diffraction
theories and/or laboratory procedures. There was no book devoted to industrial applications. In fact, no one or two
authors would be competent to write such a book because of the diverse industries and expertise involved. To fill this
niche and satisfy this need, the outline of Industrial Applications of X-Ray Diffraction was conceived.
When we first contacted potential contributors, even those with time constraints and proprietary concerns recognized
the value of the book and agreed to contribute. The initial response encouraged us to work even harder to make this
project a success. This book has 42 chapters by 59 authors from 42 institutions in 14 countries. All authors are experts
and many are authorities. Each writes with hands-on experience in the real world.
The book has three unique features: (1) it summarizes the theory, practice, and progress to date, as well as potential
applications in the next century; (2) it presents actual applications in specific industries and covers almost all major
industries; and (3) it integrates the many specialty techniques that are difficult or impossible to find discussed in print
yet are frequently used in industry. The wide variety of industrial applications of X-ray diffraction demonstrates its
power, vitality, and versatility. It has been indispensable to the advancement of science and technology.
Recent advances derived from the newly found light sources (synchrotron radiations and free-electron lasers), and
from blossoming computer power, allow smaller and smaller single crystals, faster and faster experiments, and shorter
and shorter time-resolved X-ray diffraction. It is amazing that an analytical technique developed in the early part of
the 20th century is still so important and advancing so rapidly. Modern crystallography is no longer just structure
determination per se; nor is it just fundamental knowledge. Crystal structure analysis is done with applications in
mind. It provides answers to specific problems, leads to new products, and opens new perspectives. Abundant
opportunities and challenges lay ahead for ingenious applications of X-ray diffraction.
Smart materials and complex biosystems are the two major frontiers of contemporary research. Both are of pivotal
importance in the quality of our daily lives, with impact on such areas as equipment, health, and environment; thus,
both will be central topics of research into the 21st century. Molecular structure and its mode of packing in solids is
the base for all sciences, simply because structures prescribe properties, which in turn govern applications and
functions of all materials including natural products and living matter. Crystal structure bridges mineralogy, geology,
chemicals, and engineering materials in the high-tech field. It also links biology, pharmaceuticals, and surgical
materials in the health field.
As practitioners in the X-ray diffraction field, we always want to know what is going on in allied or competing
laboratories. We also frequently need inspiration and wisdom to design new or creative applications. This book
provides both. It presents a panoramic picture of the whole landscape,
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not just virtual but real. This has been possible due to the contribution and cooperation of the many outstanding
professionals who unselfishly donated their time and expertise.We owe them an enormous debt of gratitude.
FRANK H. CHUNG
DEANE K. SMITH
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CONTENTS
Preface iii
Contributors xiii

I. Introduction
1.The Principles of Diffraction Analysis 3
Frank H. Chung And Deane K. Smith
1. History of Powder Diffraction Analysis 3
2. Fundamentals of X-Ray Diffraction 5
3. Single-Crystal Versus Powder Diffraction 6
4. Types of Radiation Used for Diffraction Analysis 9
5. Safety and Regulations in the Diffraction Laboratory 10
References 10
2. The Practice of Diffraction Analysis 13
Frank H. Chung And Deane K. Smith
1. Sources of Radiation 13
2. Diffraction Instrumentation 15
3. Crystallographic Databases 16
4. Extraction of Information from Diffraction Patterns 20
5. Analytical Methods 21
6. The Computer in Diffraction Analysis 30
7. Advantages of Diffraction Analysis 31
References 32
3. Progress and Potential of X-Ray Diffraction 37
Frank H. Chung And Deane K. Smith
1. Introduction 37
2. Evolution 37
3. Progress 39
4. Potentials 48
5. Conclusions 51
References 52

II. Industrial Applications High-Tech
4. Semiconductors: Integrated Circuit Manufacture 55
C. C. Goldsmith, I. C. Noyàn, Patrick De Haven, And T. L. Nunes
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1. Introduction 55
2. Applications 57
References 86
5. Superconductors: Structures and Applications 89
Winnie Wong-Ng
1. Introduction 89
2. Applications of X-Ray Diffraction 92
3. Summary 122
References 122
6. Aerospace: The Aircraft Gas Turbine Industry 129
H. Jones
1. Background and Definitions 129
2. Applications to Superalloys 131
3. Applications to Superalloys: Inspection of Cast Single-Crystal 137
Components by the Laue Method
4. Automation of the Laue Process—SCORPIO 138
5. Research Activity for Directional Solidified Castings 145
6. Solid-State Processing of Superalloy Single Crystals 146
7. Phase Analysis of Superalloys 149
8. Applications to Alloy Design: Gamma-Gamma Prime Misfit 164
9. Rolling Elements 167
10. Residual Stress Analysis 169
11. Analysis of Phases in Thermal Barrier Coatings 171
12. Hardware and Software Recommendations 174
References 175
7. Selected Applications of X-Ray Diffraction in the Automotive 179
Industry
C. K. Lowe-Ma And M. J. Vinarcik
1. General Considerations 179
2. Qualitative Analysis by Phase Identification 181
3. Quantitative Phase Analysis 187
4. Residual Stress/Retained Austenite 189
References 191
8. Petroleum Exploration and Production 193
Sampath S. Iyengar
1. Introduction 193
2. Petroleum Exploration 193
3. Petroleum Production and Formation Damage 202
4. Identification of Scales, Drilling Mud, and Reaction Products 204
References 204
9. Petroleum and Petrochemicals 207
James A. Kaduk
1. Introduction 207
2. Principles and Instrumentation 207
3. Technical Procedures 208
4. Illustrative Examples 208
5. Conclusions 252
References 253
10. Petroleum Catalysts 257
Ronald C. Medrud
1. Introduction 257
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2. Principles and Instrumentation 261
3. Technical Procedures 264
4. Illustrative Examples 266
5. Conclusions 278
References 279
11. Petrochemicals: Vitality of Catalysts Research 287
Ray Teller
1. The Importance of Catalysis in the Petrochemical Industry 287
2. Types of Diffraction and Their Uses 288
3. Examples of Specific Applications 292
4. The Future of Diffraction in the Petrochemical Industry 300
References 301

Metals
12. Hydrometallurgy 303
T. Havlik And M. Skrobian
1. What Is Hydrometallurgy? 303
2. Problems and Weak Points in Hydrometallurgy 303
3. Some Examples of Application 305
4. Conclusion 313
Suggested Reading 313
13. X-Ray Fractography 317
Y. Hirose And T. Sasaki
1. Introduction 317
2. Residual Stress Management 330
3. Gradient (Depth Profile) of Residual Stress 353