Global Atmospheric Phenomena Involving Water: Water Circulation, Atmospheric Electricity, and the Greenhouse Effect

223 Pages·2020·6.771 MB·English

by  Boris M. Smirnov

Springer Atmospheric Sciences
Boris M. Smirnov
Global
Atmospheric
Phenomena
Involving Water
Water Circulation, Atmospheric
Electricity, and the Greenhouse Effect
Springer Atmospheric Sciences
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10176
Boris M. Smirnov
Global Atmospheric
Phenomena Involving Water
Water Circulation, Atmospheric Electricity,
and the Greenhouse Effect
123
Boris M.Smirnov
JointInstitute for HighTemperatures
Russian Academy of Sciences
Moscow,Russia
ISSN 2194-5217 ISSN 2194-5225 (electronic)
SpringerAtmospheric Sciences
ISBN978-3-030-58038-4 ISBN978-3-030-58039-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58039-1
©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature
SwitzerlandAG2020
Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether
thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseof
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar
ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom
therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregard
tojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations.
ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG
Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland
Preface
The analysis of elementary processes involving atmospheric water is combined in
this book with the contemporary understanding of global atmospheric problems
whichincludewatercirculationthroughtheatmosphere,atmosphericelectricity,the
greenhouseeffectandotherglobalatmosphericproblems.Usingsimplemodels,as
themodelofstandardatmosphere,allowsonetounderstanddeepertheseproblems
and obtain the estimations for various parameters of global atmospheric processes.
Thebasicattentionwepaytocondensedwaterthatisconcentratedincloudswhich
consists mostly of water microdroplets. In addition, accompanied atmospheric
processes are analyzed. As a result, each atmospheric phenomenon is a chain of
certain processes.
As one of these phenomena, water circulation consists in the evaporation of
water from the Earth’s surface, capture of water molecules by air vortices in the
course of convection, and partial condensation of water at altitudes of several
kilometers with formation of clouds, consisting of water microdroplets. Returning
water to the Earth’s surface proceeds both in the form of water molecules which
partake in convection motion of air or by rain and water microdroplets.
Atmospheric electricity is the secondary phenomenon with respect to water
circulationandtheatmosphereisdividedintotwoparts,wherethefirstonecontains
cumuluscloudswhichincludealmostallcondensedwaterintheatmosphereinthe
form of water microdroplets mostly. Water microdroplets are formed as a result
ofthemixingofwetairfromnear-surfaceatmosphericregionsandcoldlayersatan
altitudeofafewkilometers.Simultaneouslygrowingmicrodropletsarechargedby
attachment of molecular ions formed under the action of cosmic rays. These
microdroplets become charged because of different mobilities of positive and
negative molecular ions. Charged microdroplets fall down that leads to the sepa-
ration of atmospheric charges and the creation of the atmospheric electric field.
Because cumulus clouds consist of microdroplets with charges of the same sign,
they have a high electric potential and may be a source ofatmosphericbreakdown
intheformoflightning.So,chargingoftheEarthproceedsduetocumulusclouds,
while its discharge results from the currents of molecular ions formed under the
action of cosmic rays in regions of the clear-sky atmosphere.
v
vi Preface
The greenhouse effect results from atmospheric emission in the infrared spec-
trumrange.Wateristhemaingreenhousecomponent,suchthatapproximately50%
of the atmospheric radiative flux toward the Earth is created by water molecules,
and 30% of the radiative flux results from cloud emission. It is of importance that
atmosphericemissiontotheEarthisseparatedtowardtheEarthandoutsidebecause
of a large optical thickness of the atmosphere. In addition, emission of clouds and
molecular components of the atmosphere are separated in regions of rare clouds
which occupy the basic part of the atmosphere.
In this book, we consider the above global atmospheric problems involving
water in detail.
Moscow, Russia Boris M. Smirnov
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Global Properties of the Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Water in Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Parameters of Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Atmospheric Water Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.3 Dynamics of Atmospheric Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.4 Water Microdroplet in Atmospheric Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Global Earth’s Energetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.1 Contemporary Evolution of Global Temperature . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.2 Earth’s Temperature in the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.3 Carbon Dioxide and Earth’s Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.4 Energetic Balance for the Earth and Its Atmosphere . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 Water Condensation Processes in Atmospheric Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Water Microdrops in Water Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.1 Clouds in Troposphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.2 Water Circulation Through the Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Formation of Clouds Under Equilibrium Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.1 Conditions of Water Condensation in Atmospheric
Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.2 Formation of the Condensed Phase resulted from Mixing
of Atmospheric Layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.3 Rate of Water Condensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Kinetics of Growth of Water Microdroplets in Atmospheric
Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.1 Mechanisms of Drop Growth in Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.2 Establishment of Equilibrium in Growth of Water
Droplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
vii
viii Contents
3.3.3 Gravitation Mechanism of Growth of Water Droplets . . . . 61
3.3.4 Displacement of Microdroplets of Cumulus Clouds . . . . . . 65
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4 Processes Involving Atmospheric Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1 Cosmic Rays in Atmospheric Ionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.1.1 Cosmic Rays in the Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.1.2 Excitation of Atmospheric Air by Fast Protons . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1.3 Character of Absorption of Cosmic Rays
by Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.1.4 Photoionization of Air Molecules in the Atmosphere . . . . . 80
4.2 Charging Processes in Low Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.1 Droplet Charging in Plasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.2 Charging of Water Droplets in Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3 Ions in Tropospheric Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3.1 Mobility of Small Water Ions in Atmospheric Air . . . . . . . 88
4.3.2 Recombination of Ions in Atmospheric Air . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3.3 Ions in Clear-Sky Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4 Electric Processes in Cumulus Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.1 Ions in Cumulus Clouds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.2 Processes in Cumulus Clouds Involving Water
Microdroplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.4.3 Stability of Cumulus Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.4.4 Thermal Charge Release for Microparticles. . . . . . . . . . . . 107
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5 Processes of Atmospheric Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.1 Global Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.1.1 Earth as Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.1.2 Electric Machine of Troposphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1.3 Study of Atmospheric Electricity and Lightning . . . . . . . . 120
5.1.4 Global Electric Atmospheric Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2 Lightning as a Phenomenon of Atmospheric Electricity . . . . . . . . 127
5.2.1 Lightning as a Physical Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.2.2 Properties of the Conductivity Lightning Channel . . . . . . . 135
5.2.3 Heat Regime of the Conductivity Lightning Channel. . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6 Greenhouse Phenomenon in the Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.1 Character of Atmospheric Emission Toward the Earth . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1.1 Emission of Gaseous Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1.2 Thermal Emission of Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.1.3 Molecular Emission of Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.1.4 HITRAN Data Bank in Spectroscopy of Atmosphere. . . . . 163
6.1.5 Spectrum of Atmospheric Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Contents ix
6.2 Water in Atmospheric Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.2.1 Water Molecules and Microdroplets as Atmospheric
Radiators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.2.2 Clouds as Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.2.3 Absorption of RF-radiation by Clouds
with Microdroplets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.3 Peculiarities of Emission of Wet Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.3.1 Emission of Greenhouse Atmospheric Components . . . . . . 184
6.3.2 Radiative Flux from Varied Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.3.3 Greenhouse Phenomenon of Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.3.4 Outgoing Atmospheric Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Appendix: Appendices .. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 211
Index .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 217