Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and Environmental Impact

573 Pages·2012·31.492 MB·English

by  Ronald DiPippo

Geothermal Power Plants:
Principles, Applications,
Case Studies and
Environmental Impact
Third Edition
Ronald DiPippo, Ph.D.
Chancellor Professor Emeritus
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
NorthDartmouth, Massachusetts
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Preface and Acknowledgements
to the Third Edition
This edition represents a major revision and extension of the original edition published
in 2005. In the roughly six years since the First Edition appeared, the inexorable
movement toward cleaner and more sustainable energy resources has continued.
Despite growing evidence of global changes to our environment that will have huge
consequences for future generations, the world has not moved as rapidly toward less
polluting and more sustainable sources of primary energy as might be expected in the
face ofthe coming crisis.
Nevertheless geothermal energy can become a significant source of renewable, sus-
tainable,andcleanenergytotheworld,bothfordirectheatandelectricpowergenera-
tion. In the latter case (cid:1) the subject of this book (cid:1) it is worthwhile to repeat the
words of my mentor Professor Joseph Kestin, who back in 1979, wrote: “Geothermal
electricity, unlike fossil or nuclear, cannot be ordered: it must be developed, for there is noth-
ingmorehazardousthanapremature orderforconversionequipment.”Apparentlythissim-
ple lesson needs to be relearned by each generation and especially by those who aim
to develop new sites, new resources, ornew technologies.
It was in fact this unique aspect of geothermal energy that intrigued me when I first
becameinvolvedwithitbackinthe1970s.Asanacademicandaresearcher,Ilookedfor
the basic principles that would guide the exploitation of geothermal energy. Beyond the
fundamentalgeology,chemistry,andphysics,muchofwhatwasneededturnedouttobe
highly site-specific. Back then there were few geothermal plants in operation and nearly
all of them were dry-steam plants. Even so there were significant differences among the
resourcesthatnecessitatedspecificengineeringdesignstocopewiththevariations.
Nowthataverywidespectrumofresourcesisbeingtappedtogeneratepower,theneed
to study and thoroughly characterize each site and then craft the power plant to match
the resource is even more important. We may understand the basic science that governs
the processes, but the applications will require innovative solutions to problems encoun-
teredallthewayfromexplorationthroughdrillingandplantdesign,construction,opera-
tion,andmaintenance.Therefore,thiseditionincludesmorecasestudiesinPartThree.
Chapter 19 focuses on two new and growing power plants in Iceland, the Nesjavellir
andHellisheidiplants.Icelandhasexperiencedaspectacularincreaseingeothermalpower
generation since 2007, growing its installed capacity from 422.4MW to 715.4MW, a
69%increaseoverfouryears.Andthishasbeenaccomplishedwithoutretiringanyofits
olderplants.Icelandnowhas31operatingunitscomparedto24in2007.
xvi PrefaceandAcknowledgementstotheThirdEdition
Chapter 20 tells the story of Raft River in Idaho, one of the first fields to be devel-
oped for geothermal power back in the 1970s and early 1980s. The original pilot
plant was soon dismantled after a short demonstration run but after 20 years of inac-
tivity, the site has been brought back to life. The lessons learned from the original
plantand the new one are presented inthis chapter.
Chapter 21 highlights another country making great strides in geothermal develop-
ment, thanks in large measure to legislative reforms that opened geothermal energy to
private companies. Turkey now is host to eight geothermal units, three of them mod-
ern gleaming examples of highly efficient units. Turkey went from having two units
with an installed capacity of 27.8MW in 2007 to eight units at 95MW in mid-2011,
more than tripling its geothermal generating capacity in four years. And more plants
are expectedto bebuiltinthe near future.
Chapter 22 deals with the future hope for geothermal power, Enhanced Geothermal
Systems or EGS. In the Second Edition, EGS was covered as part of the presentation of
advanced energy conversion systems (Chapter 9) but so much has happened in the
last four years that even a chapter devoted solely to EGS is not adequate to address the
subject. It is a tale full of hope yet disappointments. It is not yet certain what role EGS
will play in the development of geothermal power, but it remains a most important
technology that must be further refined before it can be truly considered commercial.
The new chapter details many research and development efforts and the lessons that
should belearned from them.
The other new addition is an appendix that explains how a convenient new soft-
ware program, REFPROP, developed by and available from the U.S. National Institute
of Standards and Technology (NIST), can be used to implement spreadsheet systems
simulators. Appendix H includes a tutorial on the use of the program and worked
examples showing how to use it in conjunction with Excel to model a geothermal
binary plant.
All the data tables on power plants aroundthe world have been completely updated
to mid-2011 (Appendix A). Updates and revisions have been made to several chapters
from the Second Edition, with a new section on solar-geothermal hybrid plants
(Chapter 9) and an extension of exergy analysis to pumps and to production well per-
formance (Chapter 10). A couple of typos from the Second Edition have been corrected
and hopefully not too manynew oneshavecreptinto this one.
I wish to thank the following people for various forms of assistance during the writ-
ing of the Third Edition. First of all, I extend my deepest appreciation to Lucien
Bronicki, the Chairman and CTO of Ormat, for writing the Foreword. The previous edi-
tions lacked a Foreword and to have one of the most successful geothermal enterpre-
neurs write one for this edition is very special and meaningful to me. Several people
provided valuable information on the plants in Turkey: Umran Serpen (Instanbul
Technical University); Marshall Ralph and Bill Harvey (Power Engineers); Henry
Veizades (Veizades & Associates); and Riza Kaderli (Guris). Lucien Bronicki and Zvi
Kreiger (Ormat) generously provided me with flow diagrams and performance data for
several of their recent binary installations, and Lucien reviewed some new sections for
accuracy. Einar Gunnlaugsson (Orkuveita Reykjav´ıkur) clarified the historical timeline
of development for the Nesjavellir and Hellisheidi plants. Ernst Huenges and Stephanie
Frick (Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum-GFZ) were kind enough to send me a copy of
PrefaceandAcknowledgementstotheThirdEdition xvii
their excellent book, Geothermal Energy Systems, that was edited by Ernst and which
has extensive research material related to EGS. Tiffany Gasbarrini, my editor at
Elsevier, encouraged me to tackle this new edition and steered it through the proposal,
approval, and implementation process in a professional and efficient manner. The
Elsevier production team, particularly Lisa Lamenzo and Charles Roumeliotis, did an
outstanding job of keeping the book on time and as free of errors as is humanly possi-
ble. I finally thank all those who have helped me grasp the nuances and subtleties of
geothermal power plants in various ways through planned and random conversations;
any errors of commission oromission are solely mine.
The color figures are designated with [WWW] at the end of the caption. All of the
figuresusedinthisbookmaybeviewedatelsevierdirect.com/companions/9780080982069.
Ronald DiPippo
Dartmouth,Massachusetts
August 2011
Contents
Foreword to the Third Edition xi
Preface and Acknowledgements to the Third Edition xv
Preface and Acknowledgements to the Second Edition xix
Preface and Acknowledgements to the First Edition xxi
PART1 RESOURCE IDENTIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT 1
1. Geology ofGeothermalRegions 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The Earth and its atmosphere 4
1.3 Active geothermal regions 6
1.4 Model ofa hydrothermal geothermal resource 9
1.5 Other types ofgeothermal resources 11
References 16
Problems 17
2. Exploration Strategies and Techniques 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Objectives ofan exploration program 20
2.3 Phases ofanexploration program 20
2.4 Synthesis and interpretation 33
2.5 The next step: Drilling 35
References 35
Problems 36
3. GeothermalWellDrilling 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Site preparation and drilling equipment 39
3.3 Drillingoperations 42
3.4 Safety precautions 46
References 47
4. Reservoir Engineering 49
4.1 Introduction 50
4.2 Reservoirand well flow 50
4.3 Well testing 60
vi Contents
4.4 Calcite scaling inwell casings 68
4.5 Reservoirmodeling and simulation 68
References 74
Problems 75
PART2 GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATINGSYSTEMS 79
5. Single-Flash Steam Power Plants 81
5.1 Introduction 82
5.2 Gathering system design considerations 82
5.3 Energy conversion system 87
5.4 Thermodynamics ofthe conversion process 91
5.5 Example:Single-flashoptimization 97
5.6 Optimum separatortemperature:An approximate formulation 100
5.7 Environmental aspects for single-flash plants 102
5.8 Equipment list for single-flash plants 104
References 107
Nomenclature for figures inChapter5 108
Problems 108
6. Double-Flash Steam Power Plants 111
6.1 Introduction 112
6.2 Gathering system design considerations 112
6.3 Energy conversion system 114
6.4 Thermodynamics ofthe conversion process 115
6.5 Example:Double-flashoptimization 119
6.6 Scale potentialin waste brine 121
6.7 Environmental aspects for double-flashplants 125
6.8 Equipment list for double-flashplants 126
References 127
Nomenclature for figures inChapter6 127
Problems 128
7. Dry-Steam PowerPlants 131
7.1 Introduction 131
7.2 Originsand nature ofdry-steam resources 132
7.3 Steam gatheringsystem 138
7.4 Energy conversion system 138
7.5 Example:Optimum wellhead pressure 144
7.6 Environmental aspects ofdry-steam plants 147
7.7 Equipment list for dry-steam plants 147
References 148
Nomenclature for figures inChapter7 149
Problems 149
8. Binary Cycle Power Plants 151
8.1 Introduction 152
8.2 Basic binary systems 153
Contents vii
8.3 Workingfluidselection 159
8.4 Advancedbinary cycles 163
8.5 Example ofbinary cycle analysis 171
8.6 Environmental impact ofbinary cycles 175
8.7 Equipment list for basicbinary plants 176
References 178
Nomenclature for figures inChapter8 179
Problems 180
9. Advanced GeothermalEnergy Conversion Systems 183
9.1 Introduction 184
9.2 Hybrid single-flashand double-flashsystems 185
9.3 Hybrid flash-binarysystems 189
9.4 Example:Integrated flash-binaryhybrid system 193
9.5 Total-flow systems 196
9.6 Hybrid fossil-geothermal systems 203
9.7 Combinedheatand powerplants 207
9.8 Power plants for hypersaline brines 209
9.9 Solar-geothermalhybrid plants 212
References 215
Nomenclature for figures inChapter9 217
Problems 218
10. ExergyAnalysis Applied toGeothermalPowerSystems 223
10.1 Introduction 223
10.2 FirstLaw for open, steady systems 224
10.3 SecondLaw for open, steady systems 225
10.4 Exergy 225
10.5 Exergyaccounting for open,steadysystems 229
10.6 Exergyefficiencies and applicationsto geothermal plants 230
References 244
Problems 244
PART3 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT CASESTUDIES 247
11. Larderello Dry-Steam Power Plants, Tuscany,Italy 249
11.1 History ofdevelopment 249
11.2 Geology and reservoir characteristics 252
11.3 Powerplants 256
11.4 Mitigation of environmental impact 266
References 267
Nomenclature for figures inChapter11 268
12. The Geysers Dry-Steam Power Plants,Sonoma
and Lake Counties, California,USA 269
12.1 History and earlypowerplants 269
12.2 Geographic and geologic setting 273
viii Contents
12.3 Welldrilling 275
12.4 Steampipeline system 276
12.5 Powerplants 277
12.6 Rechargingthe reservoir 283
12.7 Toward sustainability 286
References 287
13. CerroPrieto Power Station,BajaCalifornia Norte, Mexico 289
13.1 Overview ofMexican geothermal development 289
13.2 CerroPrietogeographical and geological setting 290
13.3 CerroPrietopower plants 294
13.4 Expansion ofCerro Prieto and nearby prospects 301
References 303
Nomenclature for figures inChapter13 304
14. Hatchobaru PowerStation,OitaPrefecture,Kyushu,Japan 305
14.1 Overview ofJapanese geothermal development 305
14.2 Hatchobaru geothermal field 307
14.3 Hatchobaru powerunits 310
14.4 Conclusion and forecast 316
References 316
Nomenclature for figures inChapter14 317
15. Mutnovsky Flash-Steam PowerPlant, Kamchatka Peninsula,Russia 319
15.1 Setting, exploration, and early developments 319
15.2 Conceptual modelof Mutnovsky geothermal field 320
15.3 Verkhne-Mutnovsky 12MW power plant 323
15.4 Mutnovsky first-stage 50MW powerplant 326
15.5 Future power units atMutnovsky 327
References 329
16. Miravalles PowerStation, Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica 331
16.1 Traveling toMiravalles 331
16.2 History ofgeothermal development 333
16.3 Wells 335
16.4 Powergeneration 336
16.5 Calcite inhibition system 340
16.6 Acidneutralization system 344
16.7 Environmental protectionand monitoring 345
16.8 Other geothermal power projects 346
References 347
17. HeberBinary Plants,Imperial Valley, California, USA 349
17.1 Introduction 349
17.2 Exploration and discovery 349
17.3 The firstHeberbinary plant 351
17.4 The secondHeberbinary plant 353
Contents ix
References 358
Nomenclature for figures inChapter17 359
18. Magmamax Binary Power Plant, East Mesa, Imperial Valley,
California, USA 361
18.1 Setting and exploration 361
18.2 Magmamax binary powerplant 362
18.3 Modified Magmamax binary power plant 368
18.4 Conclusion 373
References 373
19. Nesjavellir and HellisheidiPlants, Iceland 375
19.1 Introduction 375
19.2 Geology and geosciences 376
19.3 Nesjavellir powerplant 379
19.4 Hellisheidipowerplant 384
References 387
20. RaftRiverPlants,Idaho,USA 389
20.1 Introduction 389
20.2 Geology and geosciences 390
20.3 Originaldevelopment(cid:1) DOE pilot plant 393
20.4 New development (cid:1) U.S. Geothermal plant 403
References 414
21. GeothermalPowerPlants inTurkey 417
21.1 Geologic setting 417
21.2 K(cid:1)z(cid:1)ldere single-flash plant 419
21.3 Salavatl(cid:1) binary plants 425
21.4 Germencik double-flashplant 431
21.5 Environmental impact 437
21.6 Current state and future prospects ofgeothermal power 438
References 439
Nomenclature for figures inChapter21 441
22. Enhanced GeothermalSystems (cid:1)Projects and Plants 443
22.1 Definitions 443
22.2 Earlyprojects 445
22.3 Laterprojects 450
22.4 EGS power plants 463
22.5 Proposed projects 474
References 478
23. Environmental Impact of Geothermal Power Plants 483
23.1 Overview 484
23.2 Regulations 484
23.3 General impacts of electricity generation 485
23.4 Environmental advantages ofgeothermal plants 485