Geodiversity of the lightning ridge area and implications for Geotourism

2019·4.8 MB·English

by  Simone Meakin

.
Geodiversity of the Lightning Ridge Area and Implications for
Geotourism
SiMONE MeAKIN
Geological Survey ofNew SouthWales, PO Box 344, Hunter Region Mail Centre, NSW, 2310 (simone.
[email protected])
Meakin, S. (2011). Geodiversity ofthe Lightning RidgeArea andImplications forGeotourism.
Proceedings oftheLinnean Society ofNewSouth Wales 132, 71-82.
The Lightning Ridge region displays rich geodiversity. Though best known for its valuable black
opal, it is also world-renowned foryielding adiversity ofopalisedfossils, including invertebrates, reptiles,
dinosaurs and some ofthe earliest known monotreme mammals. Cenozoic silcrete preserves impressions
offossilplants in greatdetailatseveral sites.AtCuddie Springs, 100km SSWofLightningRidge,remains
of extinct Pleistocene megafauna are found in association with Aboriginal tools. Numerous Aboriginal
sites are also scattered around the ridges and along waterways. Over 100 years ofmostly small-scale opal
mining at Lightning Ridge is evidencedby historic workings and equipment thatareunique to this area or
rarely seenelsewhere. Thisvaluablerecordofgeoheritage is ofinteresttotourists,historians, scientists and
artists. Geotourism is intimately linked with opal-mining and is a growing source ofincome to the region,
onparwithdocumentedsalesofopal itself Managingsuchadiverseregionpresentsachallenge, asdiverse
stakeholders canhave conflicting objectives. Tourismhasthepotential tounite stakeholders and ensure the
prosperity ofthe region long after the opal resources are exhausted. A whole-of-govemment approach is
vital in ensuring sustainable development andprosperity ofthe region.
Manuscriptreceived 13 December2010, accepted forpublication 16 March 2011
KEYWORDS: Aborigines, Cretaceous, geodiversity, geoheritage, geotourism, Lightning Ridge, mining
heritage, opal, palaeontology, prehistory, small-scalemining
opals he found, thus attracting attention to the field
INTRODUCTION (NSW Department ofMineral Resources 2000).
Governance of the area has been a challenge
Lightning Ridge lies 770 km northwest of since. Opal mining in and around Lightning Ridge
Sydney, in northern New South Wales (Fig. 1). The is generally small scale and there are currently about
remote town in Walgett Shire is best known for 3500 small claims registered. Duetothe geographical
opal, Australia's national gemstone and the mineral isolation of the area, government regulation and
emblem ofNew SouthWales. Thetovra also supports management is often difficult. Theft of opal firom
rich living cultural and industrial traditions which are claims ('ratting') and social problems occur in these
related to opal mining andAboriginal occupation. Its remote and sometimes basic conditions. Conflict
population of about 2600 (2006 census, Australian between miners and other local stakeholders
BureauofStatistics) ishighlyvariableduetotransient is common. Whilst many, including farmers,
miners and residents. Walgett Shire is bolsteredby up environmentalists and safety regulators, wouldprefer
to 70 000 visitors a year (Tourism ResearchAustralia that land be fully rehabilitated after mining, others
2008) who come to try opal fossicking or to explore (e.g. Smith 2007) argue that some workings should
an outback mining town. be left accessible or preserved for future exploration,
Opal was first discovered at Lightning Ridge in research and geotourism.
the 1880s but the importance of the discovery was
not immediately realised. In about 1901 or 1902,
local boundary rider. Jack Murray put down a shaft GEODIVERSITY
at Lightning Ridge and was soon joined by Charles
Nettleton, who commenced a shaft and then sold the Lightning Ridge is situated on the southern
margin of the Great Australian Basin, one of the
LIGHTNING RIDGE GEODIVERSITY
Figure 1. Locality map showing major opal fields in the Lightning Ridge area and simplified geology.
world's largest artesian groundwater basins, which alluvial floodplains, which include lakes and aeolian
contains Jurassic and Cretaceous fluvio-estuarine to features ofQuaternary age.
marine sedimentary rocks and includes aquifers that The region exhibits unique and exceptional
provide a local water supply. The oldest exposed geodiversity and landscapes, shaped by over 100
rocks inthe areaare Cretaceous, andthey formnorth- million years of geological history. It is also the
northeasterly-trending low ridges. They are capped only place in the world to produce commercial
andprotectedbyresistantplateauxofMiocenequartz- quantities of extremely valuable black opal. Low
rich gravel and silcrete (Burton, in press). The ridges ridges ofweathered Cretaceous rocks ofthe Rolling
support scrubland and remnant native woodland and Downs Group stand proud ofan extensive Cenozoic
are flanked by broad colluvial slopes and grassy floodplain, forming distinctive landscapes that exert
72 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 132, 2011
MEAKIN
S.
strong influence on faunal andfloral distribution, and 1999; Reyetal. 2003); andbiologicalprocesses. Behr
havebeenappreciatedbytheAboriginesforthousands etal. (2000) suggestthatmicrobes mayhave played a
ofyears. The traditional lands ofthe Yuwalaraay or role in opal formation.
Euahlayi people extend fi-omAngledool in the north, Cretaceous rocks of the region are renowned
to Walgett in the south, to the Birree and Bohkara for their diversity of rare opalised fossils (Fig. 2),
rivers in the west (Narran Lakes Ecosystem Project which are summarised by Smith and Smith (1999).
factsheet undated). Many Aboriginal sites including Lightning Ridge is unique among Australian opal
shell middens, hearth sites with clay ovens, quarries, fields in producing opalised fossils ofpredominantly
rockwells, fishingtraps, scarredtrees andburial sites freshwater and terrestrial plants and animals (Smith
remain around the region (Predavec et al. 2004). 2007; 2009) and is the only significant dinosaur
locality in New South Wales. Many workers have
Cretaceous stratigraphy and palaeontology describedfossilsfromthearea,includingmonotremes
During the Cretaceous, Gondwana was at high (Archeretal. 1985,Flanneryetall995,Musser2005),
latitudes, and continental fragmentation generated crocodiles (Molnar 1980, Molnar and Willis 2001),
a series ofrift and passive-margin basins that today bivalves (HocknuU 2000; Kear 2006), gastropods
preserve an impressive record of Mesozoic animal (Hamilton-Bruce et al. 2002; Hamilton-Bruce and
and plant remains (Dettman et al. 1992; McLoughlin Kear 2010), echinoderms, crustaceans, cartilaginous
and Kear 2010), such as those seen at Lightning and bony fishes and lungfish (Smith and Smith 1999;
Ridge. Kemp and Molnar 1981), plesiosaurs, dinosaurs
The Cretaceous stratigraphy at Lightning Ridge (Molnar and Gahon 1986; Rich and Vickers-Rich
was described by Byrnes (1977), Watkins (1985), 1994; Molnar 2010), pterosaurs, birds (Molnar
and Smith and Smith (1999). The Lower Cretaceous 1999), turtles (Smith 2009; 2010), foraminifera
Griman Creek Formation of the Rolling Downs (Scheibnerova 1974; 1984), plants (White 1986) and
Group is economically significant as it contains the pollen (Morgan 1984).Appendix 1 fists over 60 fossil
opalfields ofthe LightningRidge area (Fig. 1). Based taxa that have been found as a by-product ofmining
on palynology, the unit has been assigned an early operations.
to middle Albian age (Burger 1980; Morgan 1984).
Following on from the work of Byrnes (1977), the Paleogene to Neogene deposits and fossils
Griman Creek Formation has been divided into two Early Cretaceous rocks are unconformably
members;theuppermostCoocoranClaystoneMember overlainbyPaleogenetoNeogene gravels andpebbly
and the underlying Wallangulla Sandstone Member, to granule-bearing quartz-rich sands. Gravels include
including lenses of the 'clay facies'. The Coocoran quartz, chert,jasper, petrified wood, topaz and agate.
Claystone Member (or 'shincracker') consists Palynological dating of Tertiary sediments from the
of white to cream claystone, which is commonly Namoi River and Gwyder River valleys (Martin
silicified to porcellanite. The Wallangulla Sandstone 1980) andthe CastlereaghRivervalley (Martin 1981)
Member comprises fine- to medium-grained, pale, indicatedthatCainozoicdepositiondidnotbeginuntil
kaolinitic sandstone that is, in places, cross-bedded the Middle to Late Miocene, and so Burton (inpress)
andiron-stained. Includedlensesof'Finchclayfacies' has interpreted the local gravels to be Miocene.
generally consist ofsoft, grey to buffclaystone. Opal Much of the sediment has been silicified to
m
occurs in the top 30 ofthe Cretaceous rocks ofthe silcrete, which Burton (in press) interprets as largely
ridge country, generally inthe top metre ofthe 'Finch obscured by coUuvium derived from the ridges. The
clay facies' and beneath sandstone beds. It typically timing ofsilicification events within the Cenozoic is
occurs as irregular nodules ('nobbies') as thin seams problematic. Silcrete wasusedfortool-makingbythe
along vertical or horizontal joint planes, and as Aboriginal population and tools and quarry sites are
replacements and cast fillings after fossils. Surface preserved in the region, as documented by Predavec
structures appear to have influenced the distribution et al. (2004).
ofsome known opal occurrences, though conditions Silcrete at Grawin has yielded a diverse
required for opal formation are not fially understood macroflora assemblage of interpreted ?01igocene
and still a topic of some debate. Burton (in press) to ?mid-Miocene age (Carpenter et al., in litt.).
summarises three main models for opal formation as: At Cumborah, approximately 40 km southwest of
weathering processes with passive structural control Lightning Ridge, fossil angiosperm leafimpressions
(e.g. Darragh et al. 1976; Watkins 1985); upwelling in silicified very fine-grained sandstone (Fig. 3) were
fluids with active structural control (Pecover 1996, collected by the author and Burton (Burton, in press)
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 132, 2011 73
LIGHTNING RIDGE GEODIVERSITY
Figure 2. Early Cretaceous opalised fossils recovered from discarded surface dirt at Lightning Ridge.
Fossils are from the collection ofthe Australian Opal Centre except C and F from the collection ofthe
Australian Museum. A. Fish palate with finely-preserved, sharply-pointed teeth. B. Corbiculid bivalve,
one ofthe smallestand most rare bivalve taxa in the LightningRidge fauna. C.Turtle shellfragmentwith
ornamentation. D. Pine cone with scales dessicated prior to fossilisation.E. Sauropod dinosaur tooth. F.
Lowerjaw fragment ofthe monotreme mammal Steropodon galmani, one ofthe most significant fossils
ever found in Australia, featured on the cover of the journal Nature. Scale bar = 5mm. Photographer
RobertA. Smith. Photographs and caption courtesy oftheAustralian Opal Centre.
74 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 132, 2011
MEAKIN
S.
\
\
:
—
Figure 3.Angiosperm leafimpression a broad-leaved dicot showing pinnate semi-craspedodro-
mous venation. (Photographer: Simone Meakin).
from the base ofa gravel pit. The fossils are difficult age of 13400 to 6400 years BP (Watkins and Meakin
to date and could be Cenomanian or younger, but an 1996). The Marra Creek Formation contains narrow
age of Paleocene to Miocene age is likely and they channels and meanderbelts that are not elevated, and
are suggestive of vine forest (pers. comm., David the unit represents deposition from 6400 years BP to
Greenwood, BrandonUniversity, Manitoba, Canada). the present day.
Taylor (1978) estimated the age of the gravels at The Narran Lakes Nature Reserve, centred 60
Cumborah to be Late Miocene. km northwest of Walgett, was listed as a UNESCO
'Ramsar'WetlandofInternational Importance inJune
Quaternary features 1999 as it is considered an excellent example of a
Adjacent to the ridges, broad floodplains have relatively undisturbed terminal lake system (listed as
been built up through the Cenozoic by evolving Site 5AU053 at www.wetlands.org/RSIS). It contains
fluvial systems that are described by Taylor (1976, manyAboriginal sites including shellmiddens, hearth
1978), Watkins and Meakin (1996) and Burton sites with clay ovens, quarries, rock wells, scarred
(2010). Aeolian redistribution of sediments has trees and burial sites (Narran Ecosystem Project,
formed lunettes on the eastern margin of ephemeral undated fact sheet). Springs, waterholes and bends
water bodies, and source-bordering dunes (Watkins in the Narran River feature in local Aboriginal lore
andMeakin 1996; Burton2010).Thehistoryoffluvial as part ofthe dreaming path ofBaayami, a creation
depositionandassociatedgeological, geomorphic and being who created the landscape's natural features.
vegetative features intheWalgettregionare described Angledool Aboriginal Reserve and Cemetery
by Watkins and Meakin (1996). Following on from are included in the Australian Heritage Database
that work, the late Pleistocene to Holocene fluvial maintained by the Commonwealth Department of
sequence on the plains surrounding the ridge country Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population
has been mapped by Burton (in press) as the Bugwah and Communities (http://www.environment.gov.
Formation and Marra Creek Formation. The Bugwah au/heritage/ahdb/index.html). An artesian bore bath
Formation preserves wide, slightly elevated meander at Lightning Ridge, one ofthree in Walgett Shire, is
plains and sinuous channels and has an estimated also listed in theAustralian Heritage Database(http://
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 132, 2011 75
LIGHTNING RIDGE GEODIVERSITY
GEOTOURISM
Apart from the landscape and geological features
described above, the small-scale mining culture,
technology and the miners themselves are unique and
ofgreat interest to tourists. Popular tourist attractions
include the historic Lunatic Hill open cut mine,
underground mine tours, an opal and fossil centre,
opal field tours, a self-guided tour of the opal fields
which uses car doors as signposts, a fossicking site at
the tourist office, opal and fossil shops, art galleries,
quaint buildings made of local stone and numerous
historic and cultural mining sites and buildings. Hot
artesian bore baths also attract visitors to the town,
and the prehistoric Cuddie Springs site occasionally
has open days organised by researchers and the
Walgett Shire Council.
The Australian Opal Centre (AOC) attracts
thousands ofvisitors to its showroom eachyearand is
involvedinongoingresearch.TheARCLinkageGrant
project 'MesozoicAustral Biodiversity: Research and
Regional Museum Applications' involves museums
anduniversities inNSW, Victoria, Queensland, South
Figure 4. Aerial shot taken in 1994 showing opal Australia and Sweden in partnership with the AOC.
workings in the Preserved Opal Fields. Under- The research focuses on Mesozoic biodiversity,
ground mining is evidenced by mullock heaps palaeoenvironments, palaeoclimate, and fossil-based
stored on the ground surface, and part ofthe his- tourism. The AOC also produces the newsletter
toric Western Fall open cut mine can be seen at Harold Hodges Opal Teeth to promote geoscience
'
the top of the photograph. (Photographer: Dave and tourism in the region. Such ecologically
& NSW
Barnes; Industry Investment photograph- sustainable development shouldbe a vital component
ic library). ofthe management ofthe opal fields.
www.envirormient.gov.au/heritage/ahdb/index.html). Geoheritage
The bore was sunk to a depth ofover 1 km in 1962 Opal mining landscapes (Fig. 4) include many
and taps geothermally heated artesian water that is features of heritage and cultural interest. Brammall
confined and pressurised within aquifers ofthe Great and Smith (2007) describe local examples of hand-
Australian Basin and flows freely to the surface at a dug shafts, puddling dams, tailing heaps, silt tanks,
temperature ofabout 41.5°C. hand-made camps and historic or unique machinery
AtCuddie Springs, approximately 100kmsouth- such as agitators, dryrumblers andhoists. Nettleton's
southwestofLightingRidge, adiversityofmegafauna Shaft, sunk in Lightning Ridge in 1903, is in the
bones, including marsupials (e.g. Diprotodon), birds Australian Heritage Database. Mining methods have
and reptiles, is preserved in an ephemeral lake, along gradually evolved in the opal fields to adapt to local
with Aboriginal stone tools, charcoal and pollen. The mining conditions but have generally changed very
deposit is interpretedby some (e.g. Field and Dodson little over the last hundred years (Figs 5 a,b). Idriess
1999; Field, Wroe and FuUagar 2006) to indicate the (1944) gives a vivid historic account of the mining
local coexistence of megafauna and humans at the lifestyle.
site, whereas others (e.g. Brook, Gillespie andMartin The Preserved Opal Fields around Lightning
2006) argue that humans caused the extinction of Ridge have been gazetted in recognition of the
the megafauna and suggest that the deposit has been heritage and scientific significance of those areas.
at least partly sourced from further afield during Covering approximately 63 sq km based over 5 non-
flooding. Regardless, the site remains an important contiguous zones, including the Three Mile Opal
focus for research into the extinction of Australian Field and Lunatic Hill open cut, they contain relics
megafauna. fi-omacenturyofsmall-scaleminingactivityandhave
yielded an abundance ofopal and fossils. These areas
76 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 132, 2011
MEAKIN
S.
(along with agriculture) and supply employment for
almost a quarter ofthe local population, as supported
by data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics
(2006). Tourism brings opal buyers and wealth to
the region, and mining activity supplies the minerals,
fossils, characters and landscapes that attract them.
Palaeontologists consultwith opalminers to seewhat
they have found, or to access spoil heaps and opal
mines. Withoutthe assistance ofminers, many fossils
would never have been recognised and smaller and
less spectacularfossilswouldtendtoendupintailings
and silt tanks (Smith 2007). Hence, collaboration
between miners and researchers is vital for fossil
discovery.
Over the last decade, mining activity and the
estimated value of opal recovered have declined
(Fig. 6), whereas tourist visitation to the town has
increased (Fig. 7). The relationship between tourism
and opal mining has evolved into a symbiotic
relationship. Ifthese trends continue, it is vital forthe
town's prosperity that both tourism and opal mining
be sustained. The establishment of a 'Geopark' at
Lightning Ridge was suggested by Turner (2006a)
and also investigated by the Australian Opal Centre.
Turner (2006b) cautioned that the boundary would
have to bewell drawnto accommodate Geoparkrules
Figure 5, Top: Historical opal working. Miners
regarding the buying and selling ofthe material that
who were down on their luck were allowed to fos-
they wish to promote. The concept of a 'Geopark',
sickonotherminers'tailings,usingdevices such as
as discussed by Turner (2006b) could provide a
the 'snippers' held by the man on the left. Bottom:
firamework in which the local community, including
Using a dry rumbler in 1994 to search for opal in
the Aboriginal population, could sustainably manage
top dirt dumped by miners in earlier times. (In-
& NSW and promote their geological and cultural heritage,
dustry Investment photographic library).
thus boosting the local economy. The Australian
Government has however expressed concern about
are now the only remaining areas where miners are the application ofthe UNESCO Geopark concept in
allowed to reside permanently in camps on their 20 Australia and concluded that existing mechanisms
yearWesternLands leases. ThePreservedOpalFields
concepthas been endorsedby a range ofstakeholders Table 1.A summary ofgeotourism features ofthe
Lightning Ridge region
as it allows sustainable, low-impact geotourism.
However, conflicts exist between mining heritage
Black opal and the opal-mining industry
and rehabilitation and safety objectives, as many old
•An authentic outback mining town surroundedby
workings pose risks. Moreover, numerous important
opal-mining landscapes
A
heritage and scientific sites lie outside these areas.
•Small-scale mining methods inuse, living heritage
Crown Reserve was created in 2009 overparts ofthe
•Ahuge diversity ofopalised Cretaceous fossils,
PreservedOpal Fields for opal mining andresidential
especially vertebrates
purposes and is to be administeredby a trust.
•Prehistoric sites (e.g. Aboriginal, megafauna)
•Historic sites (e.g. buildings, camps, machinery,
signposts, hand-dug shafts)
DISCUSSION
•Artesian baths
•Underground and surface tours, community
Local geological features and associated mining
fossicking heap, self-guided car door tour,
activity are clearly prime tourist attractions in the
opal and fossil displays and shops, galleries
Lightning Ridge area (Table 1). Together, mining
and studios
and tourism significantly support the local economy
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 132, 2011 77
-
LIGHTNING RIDGE GEODIVERSITY
CONCLUSIONS
70^^
60
Lightning Fridge is unique in manyrespects
but most notably for its remarkable opal and
fossils. Its diverse geological features provide
o a rare insight into Australia's Cretaceous
palaeogcography, palaeoclimate and extreme
biodiversity.The fossilscontributegreatlytoour
understanding of Early Cretaceous freshwater
and terrestrial biota and environments. To
enable continued discovery and research,
Figure 6. Value ofopal exports from NSW, 1989-2008. palaeontologists must continue to work in
(Source: DFAT STARS Database; consistent with ABS close collaboration with opal miners, and also
Cat No 5368.0, September 2009 data). provide support to local geotourism initiatives.
Promoting regional development is seen
as an important target by government. Given
30,000 their symbiotic relationship, the tourism and
25,000 opal mining industries must both be sustained
A
W) to ensure the future prosperity of the area.
20
sustainable, low-impact, high-yield growth in
5 15,000- tourism is necessary to support the region's
o
zo 10000 developmentandtocounteractapotentialdecline
in ooal discovery. A Whole-of-Govemment
5,000-
approach to the management of this diverse
area, involvingmany state andfederal agencies,
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2O0B 2009 2010
Years is vital to ensure its long-term environmental,
economic and social sustainability.
Figure 7. Visitor numbers to Lightning Ridge Visitor
Information Centre. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
are sufficient to protect geoheritage in Australia JenniBrammallandElizabethSmithoftheAustralian
Opal Centre are thanked for providing information on
(Environmental Protection and Heritage Council,
2009). It has requested that UNESCO take no further geoheritageandfossilsofLightningRidge,andtheGeopark
concept. Warwick Schofield and staff of the Lightning
action to recognise potential Australian Geoparks RidgeofficeofIndustry& InvestmentNSWprovidedmuch
unless the formal agreement of the Australian useful background information. John Watkins, formerly of
Government has been provided first. the Geological Survey of New South Wales, contributed
Geotourism, particularly the controlled access information on the geology and opal resources of the
to fields by tourists, offers a possible solution to region. Lori White ofthe Lightning Ridge Visitors Centre
some ofthe region's problems by providing common kindly supplied tourism data. David Greenwood provided
ground that has the support ofmany stakeholders. It advice on palaeobotany. Sue Turner, Ian Percival, Jenni
Brammall and Elizabeth Smith kindly reviewed an early
benefits all the community by providing income and
version ofthis manuscript. Published with the permission
jobs, and results in improved services and facilities. &
ofthe Executive Director (Mineral Resources), Industry
It educates and encourages commercial and research Investment NSW.
A
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