General history of Africa, I: Methodology and African prehistory

840 Pages·2010·49.59 MB·English

GENERAL HISTORY OF AFRICA!
Methodology and African Prehistory
U N E S C O General History of Africa
Volume I Methodology and African Prehistory
(Editor J. Ki-Zerbo)
Volume II Ancient Civilizations of Africa
(Editor G . Mokhtar)
Volume III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century
(Editor M . El Fasi)
(Assistant Editor I. Hrbek)
Volume IV Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century
(Editor D . T . N i a n e )
Volume V Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
(Editor B . A . Ogot)
Volume VI Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s
(Editor J. F . A . Ajayi)
Volume VII Africa under Colonial Domination, 1880-193 5
(Editor A . A . Boahen)
Volume VIII Africa since 1935
(Editor A . A . Mazrui)
(Assistant Editor C . Wondji)
UNESCO international Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa
GENERAL HISTORY
OF AFRICA!
Methodology and
African Prehistory
EDITOR J.KI-ZERBO
HEINEMANN -CALIFORNIA -UNESCO
First published 1981 by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization,
7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
and
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd
22 Bedford Square, London W C i B 3 HH
Reprinted in 1992 and 1995 by
Heinemann Educational Publishers
A Division of Heinemann Publishers (Oxford) Ltd
Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford O X 2 8EJ
Reprinted in 2000 by U N E S C O Publishing
1 rue Miollis, 75732 PARIS Cedex 15, France
P M B 5205, Ibadan
P O Box 10103, Village Post Office, Gaborone
FLORENCE PRAGUE PARIS MADRID
ATHENS M E L B O U R N E JOHANNESBURG
A U C K L A N D SINGAPORE T O K Y O
CHICAGO SAO PAULO
First published 1981
in the United States of America by the
University of California Press
2223 Fulton Street, Berkeley
California 94720, United States of America
© U N E S C O 198Ï
Heinemann Publishers ISBN o 435 94807 5 (cased)
ISBN o 435 94808 3 (paper)
UNES C O ISBN 92-3-101-707-1
University of California Press ISBN 0-520-03912-2
LCN 78-57321
Filmset in i ipt Monophoto Ehrhardt by
Northumberland Press Ltd, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear
Contents
List of figures ix
List of plates xi
List of tables xv
Preface xvi
A M A D O U - M A H T A R M ' B O W , Director-General of Unesco
Description of the Project xxi
B . A . O G O T , President of the International Scientific Committee for
the Drafting of a General History of Africa
Note on chronology xxvi
General introduction i
J. K I - Z E R B O
i The development of African historiography 25
J. D . FAGE
2 The place of history in African society 43
BOUBOU H A M A and J. KI-ZERBO
3 Recent trends in African historiography and their
contribution to history in general 54
P. D . CURTIN
4 Sources and specific techniques used in African history:
general outline 72
T. OBENGA
5 Writen sources before thef ifteenthc entury 87
H . DJAIT
6 Writen sources from thef ifteenthc entury onwards 114
I. HRBEK
7 Oral tradition and its methodology 142
J. V A N S I N A
8 The living tradition 166
A. H A M P A T É BÂ
9 African archaeology and its techniques including dating
techniques 206
Z. ISKANDER
v
Contents
io History and linguistics 233
P. DIAGNE
Editorial note: theories on the 'races' and history of Africa 261
J. K I - Z E R B O
11 Migrations and ethnic and linguistic diferentiations 271
D . O L D E R O G G E
12 African linguistic classification 292
J. H . GREENBERG
Appendix to Chapter 12: the language m a p of Africa 309
D . DALBY
13 Historical geography: physical aspects 316
S. DIARRA
14 Historical geography: economic aspects 333
A. L. MABO G U N J E
15 The interdisciplinary methods adopted in this study 348
J. K I - Z E R B O
16 Chronological framework: African pluvial and glacial epochs 359
Part I R . S A I D
Part II H . F A U R E
17 Hominization: general problems 400
Part I Y . C O P P E N S
Part II L . B A L O U T
18 African fossil m a n 437
R. LEAKEY
19 T h e prehistory of East Africa 451
J. E. G. S U T T O N
20 Prehistory in southern Africa 487
J. D . CLARK
21 The prehistory of Central Africa 530
Part I R. D E B A Y L E D E S H E R M E N S
Part II F. V A N N O T E N
with the collaboration of P. de Maret, J. Moeyersons,
K. Muya and E. Roche
vi
Contents
22 T h e prehistory of North Africa 568
L. B A L O U T
23 T h e prehistory of the Sahara 585
H . J. H U G O T
24 T h e prehistory of West Africa 611
C. T . S H A W
25 Prehistory in the Nile valey 634
F. D E B O N O
26 African prehistoric art 656
J. K I - Z E R B O
27 Origins, development and expansion of agricultural 687
techniques
R. PORTÈRES and J. BARRAU
28 Discovery and diffusion of metals and development of social
systems up to thef ifthc entury before our era 706
J. VERCOUTTER
Conclusion: from nature in the raw to liberated humanity 730
J. K I - Z E R B O
List of Members of the International Scientific Committee
for the Drafting of a General History of Africa 747
Biographies of Authors 749
Bibliography 753
Indexes 801
N . B . Mrs Catherine Perlés contributed to thef inalizationo f Chapters 18, 19,
20, 21 and 24.
Mrs Hélène Roche provided some additional items of information to Chapter 19.
vn
List of figures
12.i Diagrammatic language m a p of Africa 310
13.i Physical m a p of Africa 317
14.1 Mineral resources of Africa 332
16.1 Graphs showing analogies between oxygen isotopes (or temperature varia-
tions) and the intensity of the earth's magnetic field 373
16.2 Graphs showing analogies between temperatures indicated by the micro-
fauna and the magnetic inclination for the last two milion years 374
16.3 Surface water isotherm m a p of the Atlantic Ocean for February, 18000
B P 380
16.4 M a p showing differences in surface water temperature of the Atlantic Ocean
in the winter, between 17000 (or 18000) B P and the present day 381
16.5 M a p showing differences in surface water temperature of the Atlantic Ocean
in summer , between 17000 (or 18000) B P and the present day 382
16.6 Comparative evolution of African lakes over the last 30000 years 384
0
16.7 Relative evolution of rainfall evaporation ratio in the Chad Basin (i3~i8 N)
over the last 12000 years 387
16.8 Variations in lake level in the Afar Basins 38g
16.9 M a p of classical fossil-bearing localities of the Pliocene/Pleistocene era in
East Africa 3Q4
16.10 Chronology and the tempo of cultural change during the Pleistocene, in
calibration of hominoid evolution 3Ç5
16.11 Generalized trends in global climate for the past milion years J96
16.12 Radiometric and palaeomagnetic aspects of the Pliocene/Pleistocene time
range in eastern Africa, south-western Europe and western North
America 3Q8
17.1 Palaeontological data 416
18.1 Africa: important hominid sites 438
19.1 East Africa: important Stone Age sites 461
19.2 Early Stone Age ,f irstp hase: typical Oldowan ('pebble') tools 467
19.3a Early Stone Age , second phase: typical Acheulian hand-axe 46g
19.3b Early Stone Age, second phase: typical Acheulian pick 470
19.3c Early Stone Age , second phase: typical Acheulian cleaver 471
19.4 Middle Stone A g e and transitional tools 474
19.5 Late Stone Age: 'thumbnail' scraper, backed blade and crescent 477
20.1 Late Pliocene/earlier Pleistocene main faunal and fossil m a n localities in
southern Africa 488
20.2 Lower Acheulian hand-axe, flake and two core choppers from the Middle
Breccia, Sterkfontein 4g¡
20.3 T h e distribution of Acheulian sites in southern Africa 4g7
20.4 Upper Acheulian tools from Kalambo Fals, Zambia 4Q8
20.5 W o o d e n implements from Pleistocene sites in southern Africa joi
20.6 T h e distribution of Fauresmith and Sangoan sites in southern Africa 507
IX
List of figures
20.7 Artefacts from Sangoan assemblages in the Zambesi Valley, near Living-
stone, Zambia 50g
20.8 Upper Pleistocene and some post-Pleistocene fossil m a n sites in southern
Africa 512
20.9 Tools of the Pietersburg and Bambata Industries from the Cave of Hearths,
Transvaal, and Bambata Cave, Zimbabwe 5 / 4
20.10 Middle Stone Age industry from T w i n Rivers, typical of the Brachystegia
woodlands of Zambia 51g
20.11 Middle Stone Age artefacts from Witkrans Cave, typical of the equipment
of hunters in the Karoo/Kalahari thornveld ¡20
20.12 Tools of the Middle Stone Age L u p e m b a n Industrial Complex from
Kalambo Falls, associated with Brachystegia woodland and evergreen
forest 521
20.13 Distribution of utilized blades and blade fragments in relation to dolerite
boulder structures on a living site at Orangia, Orange Free State 522
20.14 Tools from Howieson's Poort sites belonging to Group IV of the Middle
Stone A g e in southern Africa 523
20.5 Tools of the Later Stone A g e Wilton Complex 526
20.16 Crescent adze-flake or scraper in chert, mounted in mastic, with rhino-horn
handle, from a cave at Plettenberg Bay, eastern Cape Province, South
Africa 52J
21.1 Central Africa: places mentioned in the text 535
21.2 Central Africa: vegetation zones 536
23.1 Principal sites of Saharan paintings and pack engravings §9°
23.2 Potery from Akreijit, Mauritania sg8
24.1 West Africa: vegetation zones 612
27.1 Latitudinal zoning of the African continent 6go
27.2 Ecosystems of the African continent 6gi
27.3 Cradles of African agriculture 6g6
27.4 Geo-cultural sketch m a p of Africa 702
x