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Far- Right Politics in Europe 7 Far- Right Politics in Eu rope Jean- Yves Camus Nicolas Lebourg translated by jane marie todd The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge, Mas sa chu setts London, England 2017 Copyright © 2017 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved Printed in the United States of Amer i ca First Printing This book was originally published as Les droites extrêmes en Eu rope © Éditions du Seuil, 2015 Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: Camus, Jean- Yves, 1958– author. | Lebourg, Nicolas, 1974– author. Title: Far- right politics in Eu rope / Jean- Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg ; translated by Jane Marie Todd. Other titles: Droites extrêmes en Eu rope. En glish Description: Cambridge, Mas sa chu setts : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2017. | “This book was originally published as Les droites extrêmes en Eu rope © Éditions du Seuil, 2015”— Title page verso. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016042033 | ISBN 9780674971530 (hardcover : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Right- wing extremists— Europe. | Po liti cal culture— Europe. | Europe— Politics and government—21st century. Classification: LCC JC573.2.E85 C3613 2017 | DDC 320.53/3094— dc23 LC rec ord available at https:// lccn . loc . gov / 2016042033 Contents Introduction: How the Far Right Came into Being 1 1 What to Do after Fascism? 53 2 White Power 98 3 The New Right in All Its Diversity 120 4 Religious Fundamentalism 152 5 The Populist Parties 178 6 What’s New to the East? 210 Conclusion: Might the Far Right Cease to Be? 250 Notes 257 Acknowl edgments 293 Index 295 Far- Right Politics in Eu rope 7 Introduction: How the Far Right Came into Being The expression “far right” has dominated commentary and analy sis of the French po liti cal scene ever since the Front National (FN; National Front) began to have success at the polls in the mid-1980s. Outside France, events as diverse as the inclusion in the Austrian government of the Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs (FPÖ) under the leadership of Jörg Haider (2000), the race riots in Burnley, Brad- ford, and Oldham in the United Kingdom (2001), and the attacks committed by Anders Behring Breivik in Norway (2011) have made the term even more familiar. Its fundamental ambiguity lies in the fact that it is generally used by po liti cal adversaries of the “far right” to disqualify and stigmatize all forms of partisan nationalism by reducing them to the historical experiments of Italian Fascism, German National Socialism, and national variations more or less close to them from the first half of the twentieth c entury. The label “far right” is practically never used by those who belong to it:1 they prefer to call themselves a “national movement” or the “national right.” All the scholarly lit er a ture concurs that a family of far- right parties does exist, however. Nonetheless, belief in the universality of demo cratic values does not automatically entail the idea that the split between right and left is atemporal or universal. The “far right”