Evolution of Lightweight Structures: Analyses and Technical Applications

215 Pages·2015·15.08 MB·English

by  Christian Hamm (eds.)

Biologically-Inspired Systems
Volume 6
Series Editor
Stanislav N. Gorb
Christian Albrecht University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
Motto: Structure and function of biological systems as inspiration for technical
developments
Throughout evolution, nature has constantly been called upon to act as an engi-
neer in solving technical problems. Organisms have evolved an immense variety of
shapes and structures from macro down to the nanoscale. Zoologists and botanists
have collected a huge amount of information about the structure and functions of
biological materials and systems. This information can be also utilized to mimic
biological solutions in further technical developments. The most important feature
of the evolution of biological systems is multiple origins of similar solutions in
different lineages of living organisms. These examples should be the best candi-
dates for biomimetics. This book series will deal with topics related to structure
and function in biological systems and show how knowledge from biology can be
used for technical developments in engineering and materials science. It is i ntended
to accelerate interdisciplinary research on biological functional systems and to
promote technical developments. Documenting of the advances in the field will
be important for fellow scientists, students, public officials, and for the public in
general. Each of the books in this series is expected to provide a comprehensive,
authoritative synthesis of the topic.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8430
Christian Hamm
Editor
Evolution of Lightweight
Structures
Analyses and Technical Applications
1 3
Editor
Christian Hamm
Bionic Lightweight Constructions and
Functional Morphology
Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-
Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung
Bremerhaven
Germany
ISSN 2211-0593 ISSN 2211-0607 (electronic)
Biologically-Inspired Systems
ISBN 978-94-017-9397-1 ISBN 978-94-017-9398-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9398-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930397
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London
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Preface
This book is based on the hypothesis that evolution created a large variety of fan-
tastic, very efficient lightweight structures as a result of the adaptation to diverse
environmental factors, i.e. significant mechanical challenges and the need to build
lightly and/or economically.
The focus of this book is on planktonic organisms, where there is good evidence
that an arms race between predators such as copepods and their floating prey—
diatoms and radiolarians—leads to a large, continuously changing pool of species
with individual (defensive) lightweight structures (see Knoll and Kotrc, Chap. 1).
Due to a very patchy fossil record, it is impossible to follow the development of
feeding tools of copepods to a similar extent—but we do see the results of the arms
race: the gnathobases of copepods are not only highly developed in their complex
geometries, they also have a sophisticated multi material composition (see Michels
and Gorb, Chap. 3).
Diatoms and radiolarians are unicellular organisms and thus restricted to sizes
between a few µm and 1 mm. They use amorphous silica as the main building
material, which is very convenient as it makes, unlike crystalline minerals, any
form possible—even in the size range between a few nm and a mm. The process of
biomineralization is initiated by small amounts of organic components and recent
research has shown that there is not only one, but a large variety of chemical compo-
nents involved in this process (Ehrlich and Witkowski, Chap. 4). This makes diatom
silica a composite, and an additional structuring of interfaces between organic and
inorganic components most likely results in anisotropic, strong material properties.
This would be consistent with theoretical mechanics: the best lightweight solutions
are a combination of sophisticated structures and composite materials.
The resolution of microscopes with regard to resolving the diatom composite
structure qualitatively and quantitatively in 3D is, however, so far unsatisfactory.
Layers of silica seem to have a size of 30–40 nm, and the organic layers are even
thinner, so that a reasonable material model could not be realized within the proj-
ect. Although virtually all other structural biogenic materials are also composites,
there is one group of organisms, where composites are very common, and which
also combine silica with organic materials: higher plants. Especially in equise-
tales and graminaceae silica structures (phytoliths) are very abundant. Since many
v
vi Preface
publications have already dealt with fibre orientation of wood and plant stems,
Keutmann and Speck (Chap. 9) focus on the detection and potential mechanical
function of phytoliths in higher plants.
Light weight structures are also an issue in much larger marine organisms, such
as echinodermata, especially sea urchins. They use CaCO to build their skeletons
3
and have also optimized their mechanical strength to reduce mortality by preda-
tion; the selection pressure to build light structures is probably based on their need
for mobility and to save energy necessary to build a CaCO -skeleton. The fossil
3
record is excellent and the geometries of the solitary organisms are less restricted
by growth processes than they are in trees or snails. A variety of fascinating typical
lightweight principles of sea urchin skeletons are described by Nebelsick et al. in
Chap. 8.
Since evolutionary processes have led to fantastic lightweight solutions, espe-
cially in diatoms, but are not easily accessible for engineers, Chap. 5 (Kooistra and
Pohl) summarizes a variety of interesting principles and gives examples of how
they could be applied in the technical world.
Hierarchically organized—fractal—structures are very common in nature. Es-
pecially diatom shells are known for honeycomb structures which are interlaced
within each other. In other cases they have different stiffening devices such as ribs,
honeycombs, and undulations which are combined in different dimensions. This
design is advantageous if a massive outer skin, resulting in the best second moment
of area, is for whatever reason not applicable. In the case of diatoms, high perme-
ability is required to ensure efficient uptake of nutrients. Other (including technical)
reasons could be the need for transparency or a production process.
The combination of complex fractally structured geometries with modern fibre
reinforced plastic materials is a highly challenging task, as multiple branchings are
the rule and have to be solved. In Chap. 7 by Milwich, an innovative method is
described to produce geometrically complex Carbon Fibre Composite (CFC) struc-
tures. Mechanical tests revealed very promising properties, e.g. for robot structures.
Thus, with the rapid development of production technologies, the near future will
see considerable progress in this field.
A highly aesthetic solution for an exhibition pavilion made of thin glass fibre re-
inforced plastic is described by Pohl (Chap. 6). This ambitious project shows how a
combination of lightweight principles from nature, human intuition, and innovative
manufacturing approaches can lead to a highly attractive product with the potential
for upscaling. In this case, the design aspect is very important and has been success-
fully realized—visitors of the pavilion were enthusiastic.
An innovative, powerful method which combines several principles of the evolu-
tionary optimization process is the ELiSE method (Chap. 10). It uses the full poten-
tial of a synthesis of (a) natural lightweight principles, (b) the innovation strength
of ecosystems due to a high biodiversity, and (c) the power of the optimization
process. It has thus a higher similarity to the natural process of structure evolu-
tion than most other methods used in bionics, but at the same time complies with
industrial approaches of product development. An example for this method is given
in Chap. 11, where an offshore foundation has been developed on the basis of the
ELiSE process.
Preface vii
Most of the chapters contain results of the Helmholtz Virtual Institute Plankton-
Tech, which integrated basic research on the biology of lightweight structures with
approaches to transfer them to technical structures. We are very grateful for this
substantial support by the Helmholtz Society. It is evident that the combination of
basic research, applied research and technical realization presented here shows but
a snapshot of the increasing tendency to use principles from nature to design clever,
environmentally friendly and sustainable technical solutions. I hope it became vis-
ible that only substantial effort, dedication, and interdisciplinary cooperation leads
to progress in this field and I expect that similar constellations and projects will fur-
ther improve both our knowledge on fascinating principles in nature and our ability
to use them for our own benefit.
2015 Christian Hamm
Bremerhaven
Germany
Structure and Function of Biological Systems
as Inspiration for Technical Developments
Throughout evolution, organisms have evolved an immense variety of materials,
structures, and systems. This book series deals with topics related to structure-func-
tion relationships in diverse biological systems and shows how knowledge from
biology can be used for technical developments (bio-inspiration, biomimetics).
ix
Contents
1 Protistan Skeletons: A Geologic History of Evolution
and Constraint ........................................................................................... 1
Andrew H. Knoll and Benjamin Kotrc
2 Morphospaces and Databases: Diatom Diversification
through Time .......................................................................................... 17
Benjamin Kotrc and Andrew H. Knoll
3 Biomineralization in Diatoms: The Organic Templates ......................... 39
H. Ehrlich and A. Witkowski
4 Mandibular Gnathobases of Marine Planktonic Copepods—
Structural and Mechanical Challenges for Diatom Frustules ............... 59
Jan Michels and Stanislav N. Gorb
5 Diatom Frustule Morphology and its Biomimetic
Applications in Architecture and Industrial Design ............................... 75
Wiebe H. C. F. Kooistra and Göran Pohl
6 Fibre Reinforced Building Envelopes Inspired by Nature:
Pavilion COCOON_FS .............................................................................. 103
Göran Pohl
7 Biomimetic Engineering of Tailored, Ultra-Lightweight
Fibrous Composites ................................................................................... 123
Markus Milwich
8 Echinoderms: Hierarchically Organized Light Weight Skeletons ........ 141
James H. Nebelsick, Janina F. Dynowski, Jan Nils Grossmann
and Christian Tötzke
xi