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JOURNALOFAPPLIEDBEHAVIORANALYSIS 2007, 40, 317–320 NUMBER2 (SUMMER2007) EFFECTS OF TEACHER GREETINGS ON STUDENT ON-TASK BEHAVIOR R. ALLAN ALLDAY AND KERRI PAKURAR COLLEGEOFCHARLESTON A multiple baseline design across participants was used to determine how teacher greetings affectedon-taskbehaviorof3middleschoolstudentswithproblembehaviors.Momentarytime sampling was used to measure on-task behavior during the first 10min of class. Teacher greetings produced increases in students’ on-task behavior from a mean of 45% in baseline to a mean of 72% during the intervention phase. Teacher greetings represent an antecedent manipulation that can easily be implemented in classrooms to improve students’ on-task behavior. DESCRIPTORS: antecedent, on-task behavior, middle school students, teaching, teacher attention _______________________________________________________________________________ In secondary education classrooms, the first priate behavior (see Kern, Choutka, & Sokol, several minutes of a class period are crucial for 2002, for a review). For example, McComas, completing a variety of administrative tasks Thompson, and Johnson (2003) decreased such as taking attendance, collecting assign- attention-maintained problem behavior dis- ments, and making announcements. To facili- played by elementary students by delivering tate completion of these tasks, Emmer, Evert- attention as an antecedent. Relative to some son, and Worsham (2006) suggested that consequence-based interventions (e.g., extinc- teachers assign an activity for students to tion) antecedent interventions can be more perform independently during the first 10 min easily integrated into a classroom teacher’s of class. However, it can be challenging for pedagogy.Thus,additionalstudiesthatevaluate teachers to achieve and maintain student on- classroom-based antecedent interventions are task behavior while simultaneously completing warranted. The intervention implemented in administrative tasks. Given these competing the present study involved an easy-to-use demands, teachers may be likely to inadvertent- antecedent manipulation designed to increase ly reinforce students’ off-task behavior by on-task behavior during the first 10 min of attending to students only when they are off class; teachers were asked to greet target task.Whenthisoccurs,classroomcontingencies students as they entered the classroom. are likely to promote off-task rather than on- task behavior. METHOD A growing body of research identifies the Participants benefits ofmanipulating antecedentvariables to Participants were 3 students enrolled in reduce problem behavior and increase appro- separate middle schools in an urban area in We thank the middle school teachers who made this SouthCarolina.Thesestudentswerenominated project successful, Chelsea Smith for her assistance, and by their teachers based on a pattern of Mike Skinner, Mary Provost, and Susan Gurganus for consistent difficulty remaining on task during manuscript suggestions. the first 10 min of class. None of the Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to R. Allan Allday, who is now at the School participants received special education services. ofTeachingandCurriculumLeadership,OklahomaState Tim was an eighth-grade boy of Hispanic- University,245WillardHall,Stillwater,Oklahoma74078 American descent who reportedly displayed (e-mail: [email protected]). doi:10.1901/jaba.2007.86-06 frequent off-task (e.g., failing to complete class 317 318 R. ALLAN ALLDAY and KERRI PAKURAR work, sleeping, not being prepared) and greetings on on-task behavior. Data were disruptive (e.g., talking out, annoying other recorded in each student’s classroom during students) behavior. Observations occurred from the first 10 min of the class period as students 8:27 a.m. to 8:37 a.m. during first-period participated in the normal class routine. scienceclass.KaywasaCaucasianseventh-grade Students were unaware that they were being girl who was described as easily distracted (e.g., observed or were participating in a research looking out the window, not paying attention). study. Observers arrived in the classroom She was observed during second-period science during the change of classes and were seated class from 9:36 a.m. to 9:46 a.m. Jon was an in an inconspicuous location within the class- African-American sixth-grade boy who engaged room prior to the beginning of class. Partici- in disruptive (e.g., talking inappropriately, pants were observed 2 days per week (unless leaving his seat) and off-task (sleeping, not absent), for a total of 6 weeks. following directions) behavior. Jon was ob- Baseline.Duringbaseline,teacherswereasked served during second-period reading class from to maintain their typical daily routine, which 10:10 a.m. to 10:20 a.m. did not include greeting students at the door. Teachers were not informed of the planned Data Collection and Interobserver Agreement intervention technique (i.e., the teacher greet- The occurrence or nonoccurrence of on-task ing). behavior was recorded using momentary time Teacher greetings. Teachers were instructed to sampling, with 15-s intervals. A student was greet thetarget student at the door by using the considered on task when he or she was (a) student’s name along with a positive statement activelylisteningtoteacherinstructions,defined (e.g., ‘‘I like your new shoes,’’ ‘‘I am glad you asbeingorientedtowardtheteacherortaskand are here today’’). No specific scripts were given responding verbally (e.g., asking questions because of the need for this interaction to be about the instructions) or nonverbally (e.g., perceived by students as sincere and consistent nodding); (b) following the teacher’s instruc- with the setting. Following the doorway tions; (c) orienting appropriately toward the greeting, teachers were instructed to continue teacherortask;or(d)seekinghelpintheproper their normal routine. manner (e.g., raising hand). When determining percentages of on-task behavior, data were RESULTS AND DISCUSSION summarized by tallying intervals coded as on task and dividing by the total number of The percentage of intervals with on-task intervals. Interobserver agreement was assessed behavior for each participant is illustrated in during 20% of sessions. Interobserver agree- Figure 1. Teacher greetings were associated mentwasdeterminedbycomparingthenumber with an increase in on-task behavior for all of intervals with on-task behavior recorded by participants. Tim was on task during a mean of eachobserver;thelowernumberofintervalswas 37% (range, 26% to 43%) of baseline observa- divided by the higher number of intervals and tions and a mean of 66% (range, 43% to 82%) multiplied by 100%. Mean agreement for on- of observations during the teacher greeting taskbehaviorwas77%(range,73%to81%)for phase. Kay’s on-task behavior increased from Tim, 96% (range, 92% to 100%) for Kay, and 52% (range, 43% to 60%) during baseline to 84% (range, 80% to 87%) for Jon. 87% (range, 80% to 93%) when she was greeted upon entering the classroom. Jon was Procedure on task during a mean of 48% (range, 25% to Amultiplebaselineacrossparticipantsdesign 68%) of intervals during baseline and 67% was used to evaluate the effectiveness of teacher (range, 55% to 78%) of intervals during the TEACHER GREETINGS 319 Figure1. Percentage ofintervals withon-task behaviors across participants andphases. 320 R. ALLAN ALLDAY and KERRI PAKURAR teacher greeting phase. The effects of the research suggests one quick, simple antecedent intervention are less clear with Jon because intervention that can increase student on-task three points from baseline (during which behavior during the first 10 min of class. a movie was shown) overlap with results Merely greeting a student at the door with his obtained in the intervention condition. or her name and a brief, genuine pleasantry There are several plausible interpretations of increased student on-task behavior. Future these results. First, it is possible that antecedent research should evaluate the effects of this and attention provided during the greeting reduced other easy-to-implement antecedent interven- or eliminated the establishing operation for tionsonawidervarietyofstudentperformances attention-maintained off-task behavior, thereby (e.g., attendance, academic progress) during increasing on-task behavior during the initial moreextendedobservationperiods.Inaddition, portion of class (e.g., Laraway, Snycerski, it would be valuable to identify the conditions Michael, & Poling, 2003). However, in the necessary for long-term maintenance of these absence of a functional analysis of off-task effects. For example, it is possible that high behavior, this account remains speculative. levels of on-task behavior would be maintained Second, teacher greetings may have functioned with intermittent teacher greetings. as a discriminative stimulus indicating the availability of attention as reinforcement for REFERENCES appropriate behavior. Third, increases in stu- denton-task behaviormayhave been aresultof Emmer, E., Evertson, C., & Worsham, M. (2006). Classroom management for middle and high school unprogrammed changes in the reinforcement teachers(7th ed.).Boston: Pearson. schedule for appropriate behavior. Data on Kern, L., Choutka, C., & Sokol, N. (2002). Assessment- teacher implementation of the programmed basedantecedentinterventionsusedinnaturalsettings intervention, as well as other potentially in- to reduce challenging behavior: An analysis of literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 25, fluential interactions with students (e.g., con- 113–130. sequencesforappropriatebehavior,numberand Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A. type of instructions), are necessary to draw (2003). Motivating operations and terms to describe them: Some further refinements. Journal of Applied conclusions regarding the relation between BehaviorAnalysis,36,407–414. teacher greetings and on-task behavior. McComas,J.,Thompson,A.,&Johnson,L.(2003).The Teachers often report being overwhelmed by effects of presession attention on problem behavior the many noninstructional responsibilities of maintainedbydifferentreinforcers.JournalofApplied BehaviorAnalysis,36,297–307. their profession. Furthermore, they frequently Sprague,J.,&Walker,H.(2000).Earlyidentificationand balkatimplementingcomplicatedandintrusive intervention for youth with antisocial and violent interventions for individual students. Sprague behavior.Exceptional Children,66,367–379. and Walker (2000) stressed the importance of Received June 6,2006 intervention research being practical for im- Final acceptance September 21,2006 plementation in the schools. The current Action Editor,Rachel Thompson