Table Of Content

Feature ttteeeaaaccchhhiiinnnggg for uuuuunnnnndddddeeeeerrrrrssssstttttaaaaannnnndddddiiiiinnnnnggggg Understanding is not just about coverage of knowledge … but about “uncoverage”— being introduced to new ideas and being asked to think more deeply and more carefully about facts, ideas, experiences, and theories previously encountered and learned. —Grant Wiggins By Tom Sherman and Barbara Kurshan Subject: Pedagogy, metacognition Standards: NETS•S 3; NETS•T II; NETS•A II (http://www.iste.org/standards/) 6 Learning & Leading with Technology Volume 32 Number 4 Copyright © 2004, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 1.800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 1.541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], www.iste.org. All rights reserved. Feature A main challenge for teachers is to use these preconceptions as the foundation for helping learners expand or modify their existing understandings. Wiggins’ view of under- Teachers and learners can use Th ese preconceptions have powerful standing requires students technology in many ways to support and enduring eff ects on how children to integrate facts, infor- these fi ndings on human learning. learn new information as well as how mation, knowledge, and applications Technology can help teachers discover they will remember and use new to develop understanding. Under- students’ preconceptions and provide knowledge. standing, from this perspective, is an a broad range of instructional op- A main challenge for teachers is to extensive web of interrelated ideas, ex- tions to meet diverse learner needs. use these preconceptions as the foun- periences, and beliefs that transforms Technology is a tool for teachers to dation for helping learners expand information from simple, memorized more eff ectively and accurately create or modify their existing understand- facts into knowledge that can be the profi les of each learner’s experiences ings. Another challenge is to correct basis for action. Recent research and and background and how students misconceptions. Until recently, the theory have provided a relatively learn and then develop technology- impact of misconceptions has not clear picture of how technologies based instruction consistent with been well understood, and they were can support classroom teaching and each student’s needs. For learners, generally thought to be easily correct- learning that leads to this genuine technologies can open alternatives to ed. However, most misconceptions understanding. Moreover, teaching mastering ideas, concepts, processes, are relatively fi rmly held beliefs based for understanding appears to result in and outcomes. Learners can employ on observations of natural events and students passing or scoring higher on technology to expose misconceptions, have practical explanatory power or high stakes tests. simulate solution applications, test are eff ective in limited applications. Over the past 8–10 years scientists, facts, and respond to problem-solving For example, a fl at earth theory is teachers, and behavioral investigators challenges. Integrating technology intuitive because the earth looks fl at have synthesized research and practice into instructional practices often im- and we have no experience that con- to explain how to develop the intel- proves student achievement; presents tradicts the idea of a fl at earth. And, lectual tools and learning strategies relevant, timely, and appropriate re- a fl at earth conception works very needed to acquire the knowledge that mediation; and provides content that well with most experiences we have, allows people to think productively. can be crafted to meet diff erent learn- for instance, building a small house. Th ese scientists believe that learners ing styles. We examine specifi c ways However, fl at earth thinking becomes construct their knowledge from their that technologies can contribute to problematic for long-range naviga- experiences, a perspective that gener- meeting the fi ndings of modern learn- tion, as well as understanding geogra- ates many implications for how to ing psychology. phy and other sciences. It is not un- teach students to understand. usual for people to operate cognitively Psychologist John Bransford and Preconceptions Infl uence from a fl at earth theory even though his colleagues propose three strongly All Learning they know intellectually that the earth supported fi ndings that capture the Students come to school with well- is not fl at. essence of this evidence for teaching formed ideas about how the world Classroom instruction is rarely de- and learning: works. Called preconceptions, ex- signed to correct students’ incorrect 1. Preconceptions infl uence isting ideas that children hold are assumptions. Generally, the instruc- all learning. central to constructing new learning. tional approach is to teach the correct 2. Understanding comes from Humans begin learning right from answer and problem-solving strategy. knowing facts and principles. birth, and even very young children Misconceptions cannot be ignored 3. Metacognition is essential form ideas about their worlds based because new and accurate informa- for understanding. on observations and experiences. tion inconsistent with these miscon- December/January 2004–05 Learning & Leading with Technology 7 Copyright © 2004, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 1.800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 1.541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], www.iste.org. All rights reserved. Feature Technologies also offer great potential to the earth’s rotation rather than the varying speeds of stars can manipulate integrate preconceptions with new models of the solar system to see the consequences of varying speed. Stu- knowledge by providing learners with many dents who hold views such as welfare examples of concepts to be taught from which mothers never get off the dole can explore databases with accurate sta- students can choose the most salient for them. tistical information as well as primary sources. By creating this disequilibrium, teachers can motivate students to learn and focus their attention on ceptions is likely to be learned super- ceptions and correct them, leading critical features of the concept being fi cially, recalled only for tests, and to increased understanding and re- taught. then forgotten. tention of content. CTOOLS, from Perhaps practicing teachers’ most Michigan State University and de- Understanding Comes from frequent question about students’ veloped through an NSF grant, pro- Knowing Facts and Principles prior knowledge is, “How is it pos- vides a Web-based problem-solving Understanding evolves from a combi- sible to assess every student’s prior environment for exploring concepts nation of learning factual knowledge knowledge?” One answer is to use in science. WebLearn, developed by and general principles. Learning fac- technology to assist with this critical the computer science department of tual information is essential, because task by allowing students to reveal RMIT University in Australia, focuses without facts students have nothing their preconceptions on well-designed on identifying students’ misconcep- to understand. However, isolated facts assessments that focus on commonly tions in learning college mathematics. are diffi cult to learn and unlikely to held misconceptions. Technology If an answer specifi ed is incorrect, be recalled. Although this may appear tools provide teachers the ability to commonly occurring misconceptions obvious, the ways that facts should assess students’ misconceptions. Re- are checked for and appropriate feed- be connected is often not well un- cent applications on handhelds and back is provided to the student. derstood. Th e relation between facts, PCs can be used to aggregate class re- Students benefi t because they have concepts, and principles requires mul- sponses, test knowledge, and provide the option of choosing examples that tiple interactions between the learners feedback to the class. Discourse, pub- are most consistent with their per- existing and new facts and more gen- lished by ETS (Educational Testing sonal backgrounds and knowledge. eral or higher-level conceptualization Service), lets teachers know instantly In addition, an array of examples al- that provides a framework for making if each and every student in the class lows students to test applications of these facts meaningful. is following the lesson. (Editor’s note: their understandings in diff erent and Students must develop extensive For company contact information, unfamiliar situations. When students conceptual frameworks to organize see Resources on p. 11.) With instant engage their understanding through feedback, instruction can be modifi ed these examples, they can examine the Metacognition as it occurs for every student. Simi- relationships between their beliefs and larly, Classroom Performance System outcomes. Students and teachers can describes the from eInstruction Corporation pro- develop a stronger sense of the intel- vides a nonthreatening environment lectual strategies that may be helpful personal awareness allowing all students to participate in developing more extensive and ac- and teachers to give immediate feed- curate understandings. of individuals to choose, back and aggregate results. Finally, technology-assisted learn- Technologies also off er great po- ing tools can provide simulated intel- monitor, and adjust the tential to integrate preconceptions lectual challenges through which stu- with new knowledge by providing dents can confront the inconsistencies thinking strategies learners with many examples of con- between the knowledge they have and cepts to be taught from which stu- the new knowledge in a lesson. For they use to learn and dents can choose the most salient for example, students who misunderstand them. Concept mapping tools enable a concept such as retrograde motion solve problems. students to visually see their miscon- of stars is a product of distance and 8 Learning & Leading with Technology Volume 32 Number 4 Copyright © 2004, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 1.800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 1.541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], www.iste.org. All rights reserved. CAP019(2.25x9.5)-1C 8/5/03 8:47 AM Page 1 Feature facts into knowledge in their memo- such as Inspiration (Inspiration Soft- “We LOVE it, and ries much like a well organized fi le ware Inc.) and MindMapper (Th e Bo- cabinet makes facts easy to retrieve. sley Group) graphically present these we’re winning the When knowledge is extensively con- skills and promote the development WAY COOL contest!” nected with other concepts and well of visual learning strategies. organized, it is much more accessible A.F. – Newport News Public Schools, Virginia and more accurately used. Organiza- Metacognition Is Essential tion facilitates applying knowledge for Understanding Bring in diff erent situations and on novel Students must be aware of and con- PowerPoint® problems, a process called transfer. trol their thinking. Metacognition To present the facts and guide describes the personal awareness of to Life! students to develop the broad frame- individuals to choose, monitor, and works to organize the facts, teachers adjust the thinking strategies they use with characters that must have a strong mastery of the to learn and solve problems. In other MOVE,GESTURE & SPEAK material they are teaching and recog- words, students select and control nize how students typically learn that their mental processes so that they material. can think effi ciently and eff ectively. computingwithkids.com Computer-based programs can It is well known that successful learn- provide students with a menu of ers have more thinking skills and use choices from which they can develop their intellectual abilities diff erently experience with varying applica- than less successful learners. tions of ideas drawn from examples Genuine understanding is most embedded in multiple contexts. For likely when students are cognitively example, if the goal of instruction was managing the interaction between 3D Talking Animated Characters to teach students how the concept of what they know and what they are transportation can explain the forma- learning. Because learning begins with � Captivate tion of population centers, students learners’ existing conceptions, growth � can search maps looking for potential comes from changing and expanding Inspire sites based on geographical features. their existing beliefs. Teachers help �Motivate Once sites are selected, the map can students learn to monitor their un- � Enrich reveal where cities actually formed. derstanding by using cognitive skills Students will be challenged to ex- such as refl ection and summarizing. Paul plain both their accurate and inac- In this way, students master the mate- curate choices. Th e SimCity program rial and the thinking strategies needed published by Electronic Arts is one to understand. We have developed example of software that can leverage a site called Study Smart that illus- the power of technology to facilitate trates how online programs can teach thinking about the accuracy of held the metacognitive intellectual tools, beliefs. skills, strategies, and attitudes that are A variety of experiences coupled characteristic of successful learners. with collaborative discussions enables Many programs integrate these kinds Susan students to use and organize facts. In of thinking strategies and provide www.voxproxy.com addition, as they build experience, the opportunity to summarize and 303.278.2244 students can develop broader concep- refl ect on knowledge. Two that eff ec- Over 25 characters to choose from, including: tions. Finally, technology-based con- tively engage learners while teaching Louis Waxy Noah Scientist cept maps can show students other these skills are the Zoombinis series ways to organize their understandings developed by TERC (distributed by and allow them to compare their con- Riverdeep) and BrainCogs developed cept structures. Software that helps by Fablevison. learners to brainstorm, organize, plan, Although metacognition may seem and create is valuable for supporting intuitive, developing good metacog- development of concepts. Products, nitive strategies is diffi cult for most December/January 2004–05 Learning & Leading with Technology 9 Copyright © 2004, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 1.800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 1.541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], www.iste.org. All rights reserved. Feature learners. Th e most eff ective ways to standing is the series of research-based With the simulations, teach these cognitive management interactive math and science simula- skills is to provide many models and tions called Gizmos from Explore- students develop continuous opportunities. Teachers learning. Th ese knowledge interac- are one good source of models, but tions help students to build stronger problem-solving technologies can also encourage stu- understandings and to identify ways dents to address the disequilibrium to manipulate their cognitive actions skills as they form created by the diff erences between to stimulate more active thinking. current and new information. Simulations and dramatizations of Summary hypotheses, events and situations as well as strate- Th ese three fi ndings summarize the gies to solve problems let learners basic premise that human learning manipulate variables, compare, contrast, and experiment is a complex interaction between with new and old ways of thinking existing understandings and new generate and in a variety of settings. For example, knowledge. Changing beliefs is often in science, a common misconception diffi cult because our inclination is to collect data, analyze is that a ball thrown in the air has fi t new ideas into existing conceptual energy that propels it upward. Using frameworks. Information, whether relationships, and technologies, students can manipulate observed or presented by a teacher, the variables acting on the ball and that does not fi t existing frameworks draw conclusions. compare the outcomes with their is usually forgotten because it is either predictions. Computer simulations irrelevant or incorrect. and animations can clearly depict and Successfully modifying existing simulate learning situations and also beliefs comes from discovering that a provide the tools for exploring the current belief is inadequate to explain with situations that are inconsistent concepts through “what if” strategies. new information or as a result of a with their existing conceptions, al- Th e Logal Science Explore Series, purposeful quest to expand or to chal- lowing multiple opportunities to published by Riverdeep, includes lenge an existing conceptual frame- confront misconceptions and to iden- computer simu- work. Although teachers can devise tify and experiment with alternative lations that these events for students, it is essential conceptions. help stu- for students to engage personally to From a pedagogical perspective, dents more change their understandings. And, teaching involves creating situations eff ectively students who are aware of thinking in which students can confront their discover strategies and are open to new ideas misconceptions, enhance their in- and under- are much more likely to understand complete knowledge, improve their stand in new ways. One of the appeals intellectual abilities, and construct scientifi c con- of technologies is to entice learners ever more accurate representations of cepts. With the to think diff erently and more ideas and processes. As they mature as simulations, expansively. knowers, learners not only build more students devel- Technologies can be used to pres- extensive and accurate understandings op problem-solv- ent new knowledge in carefully but also develop more sophisticated ing skills as they crafted learning environments that learning skills and strategies. Th us, form hypotheses, stimulate students to examine their the twofold general goals of teaching manipulate variables, beliefs and revise what and how are for students to master content and generate and collect they think based on new facts and to develop the skills, strategies, and data, analyze expanded conceptual frameworks. attitudes characteristic of successful relationships, and Because technology is powerful learners. Th ere are many technologies draw conclusions. and responsive, it can be used to as- that can be among teachers’ pedagogi- Another example sess students’ existing knowledge so cal tools to meet both goals. that promotes higher- teachers have a clear picture of stu- Consider your teaching and how order thinking skills and dent needs. In addition, technology- you can integrate technology to better lasting conceptual under- based programs can present students teach for understanding. We suggest 10 Learning & Leading with Technology Volume 32 Number 4 Copyright © 2004, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 1.800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 1.541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], www.iste.org. All rights reserved. Feature you begin by considering your beliefs Ormrod, J. E. (2004). Human learning (4th about teaching and learning. Current ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., &. Boyle, R. A. thinking about learning indicates that (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: earn your there are substantial diff erences in the Th e role of motivational beliefs and class- ISTE ways we teach if we want the majority room contextual factors in the process of of students to learn beyond only re- conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 63, 167–199. C calling facts. Understanding requires a more signifi cant and intense interac- Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment: certificate E Designing assessments to inform and improve R tion between learners and content so student performance. San Francisco: Jossey- that new ideas are processed deeply Bass. T The Capstone Certificate and extensively connected to existing I Program, created by PBS F and new knowledge. One practical Web Sites TeacherLine and ISTE, is an I BrainCogs: http://www.fablevision.com advantage of a well developed and online learning experience that C Classroom Performance System: http://www. evidence-based theory such as con- einstruction.com allows teachers to demonstrate A their knowledge of technology structivism is that you can make pur- CTOOLS: http://ctools.msu.edu T integration and gain a deeper poseful decisions about using technol- Discourse: http://www.ets.org/discourse/ E understanding of the ISTE ogy in teaching. Th is is in marked Gizmos: http://www.explorelearning.com Inspiration: http://www.inspiration.com National Educational Technology contrast, for example, to using tech- O Logal Science Explore: http://www.riverdeep. Standards for Teachers (NETS•T). nologies merely because it is possible net/products/logal/ Participants earn their Certificate F to expose students to a program or MindMapper: http://www.mindmapperusa. of Proficiency in the NETS•T P Web site. Th e benefi ts of exposure com after completing a self-paced Newsbank: http://www.newsbank.com introduction and two capstones, R increase markedly when the technol- Proquest: http://www.proquestk12.com which take place within a small ogy application fi ts with a purpose O SimCity: http://www.simcity.ea.com cohort of fellow educators guided consistent with how people learn. Th omson Gale: http://www.gale.com/schools/ F by an experienced coach. Here we have suggested a variety of WebLearn: http://weblearn.rmit.edu.au I C technology-based applications that Zoombinis: http://www.riverdeep.net/prod- Capstone certificate are consistent with well developed ucts/zoombinis/ program courses featureI E theoretical propositions to transform #An introductory self-paced N classrooms to be more consistent with session followed by two the conditions that promote learn- Th omas M. Sherman is a facilitated capstone courses C ing. In addition, it appears that tech- professor of education in the #Online personalized digital Y College of Liberal Arts and nologies can be valuable resources for Human Sciences at Virginia portfolio with artifacts and reflections that demonstrate I teachers to respond to the increasing Tech. He teaches courses in N evidence of standards demands for students to get passing educational psychology, evalu- in practice ation, and instructional design marks on high stakes tests. Although #A library of multimedia T and has written more than 100 certainly not magic, technologies can exhibits of classroom H articles for professional publications. Tom works practice and other relevant be an important pedagogical tool that regularly with practicing teachers and students in E professional resources increases the ability for teachers to the areas of learning improvement and teaching #Experienced coaches and successfully teach all students to learn strategies. He is also active in civic aff airs, serv- N guiding rubrics to support ing on local and state committees. with understanding. teachers’ work E DDrr.. BBaarrbbaarraa KKuurrsshhaann is the Enroll now in the T Resources pprreessiiddeenntt ooff EEdduuccoorrpp CCoonnssuulltt-- Capstone IntroductionS Further Reading iinngg CCoorrppoorraattiioonn.. SShhee hhaass aa Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, ddooccttoorraattee iinn eedduuccaattiioonn wwiitthh For more information, • T R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: aann eemmpphhaassiiss oonn ccoommppuutteerr--bbaasseedd call 1-800-572-6386 Brain, mind, experience, and school. Wash- aapppplliiccaattiioonnss.. SShhee hhaass wwrriitttteenn or visit: www.pbs.org/teacherline ington, DC: National Academy Press. nnuummeerroouuss aarrttiicclleess aanndd tteexxttss Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Ronning, aanndd hhaass ddeessiiggnneedd ssooffttwwaarree aanndd nneettwwoorrkkss ttoo mmeeeett R. R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and in- the needs of learners. She works with investment ® struction, second edition. Englewood Cliff s, banking fi rms and venture groups on companies NJ: Merrill. related to educational technology. She serves Mayer, R. E. (2003). Learning and instruction. on the boards of Fablevision, Headsprout, and Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Educa- Medalis, and is currently on the advisory boards tion, Inc. of Pixel, WorldSage, and Tegrity. December/January 2004–05 Learning & Leading with Technology 11 Copyright © 2004, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 1.800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 1.541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], www.iste.org. All rights reserved.