ERIC EJ1150286: Holocaust, Genocide and Human Rights Education: Learning Political Competencies for 21st Century Citizenship

2011·0.23 MB·English

by  ERIC

Journal of International Social Studies
http://www.iajiss.org

Holocaust, Genocide and Human Rights Education: Learning Political
Competencies for 21st Century Citizenship

Rosanna M. Gatens
Florida Atlantic University

Mary Johnson
Facing History and Ourselves

This article explores the use of Holocaust, genocide and human rights education to teach
political competencies for American students in the 21st century.
Key Words: social studies, global studies, holocaust and genocide studies, teacher education,
democratic citizenship

learning how “to contribute to the building
During the past decade, policy and
and defence [sic] of a universal culture of
research centers in Europe and the United
human rights in society, with a view to the
States have sponsored several major studies
promotion and protection of human rights
that seek to reform current approaches to
and fundamental freedoms”(Council of
education about and for democracy and
Europe, 2010, p. 7). Though the core
human rights (Council of Europe, 2010;
questions governing these studies are
Colby, 2003). Both the Council of Europe
slightly different, they agree on three major
Charter on Education for Democratic
points:
Citizenship and Human Rights Education

(2010) and the Political Engagement Project
 Active citizenship is best learned by
of the Carnegie Foundation for the
doing, not through being told about it . . .
Advancement of Teaching (2007), assume
Education for active citizenship is not
the critical role of teachers in preparing
just about the absorption of factual
students to become citizens who are able to
knowledge, but about practical
“exercise and defend their democratic rights
understanding, skills and aptitudes,
and responsibilities in society, to value
values and characters (Gollob
diversity and to play an active part in
&Weidinger, 2010, p. 9).
democratic life, with a view to the

promotion and protection of democracy and
 In teacher preparation, there is a
the rule of law.” (Council of Europe, 2010,
significant gap between the official
p. 7) Just as important is teaching and
policy and rhetoric regarding democratic

participation and commitment to human

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rights on the one hand, and curricular with the result that most students are left
implementation at the school level, on unclear about „the route to becoming
the other (Gollob & Weidinger, 2010). politically engaged‟ “ (Colby, et al., 2007,
p.1). Thus, while specialists in the United
 Infusing citizenship and human rights States and Europe agree that the survival of
education into existing curricula democratic institutions and respect for
frequently is “stronger on paper than is human rights requires curricula that
evident in classroom realities” (Brett, empower young people by integrating
Mompoint-Galliard, & Salema, 2009, p. “knowledge, action-based skills, and
15). change-centered competence”(Brett,
Mompoint-Galliard, & Salema, 2009, p. 13),
Policy makers and teachers who are strong pressures exist, even in democratic
working toward the establishment of societies, to keep study about politics
effective education for democracy and separated from developing the skills and the
human rights recognize the challenges they know-how to become citizens capable of
face as they attempt to change the way in political action.
which civics education is done, especially We believe that Holocaust/genocide and
challenges associated with fears about human rights education offers educators an
politicizing curricula. This challenge is effective opportunity to overcome these
highlighted in the 2003 Carnegie Foundation obstacles precisely because genocide is
report, Educating Citizens: Preparing perceived by most governments to be
America’s Undergraduates for Lives or reprehensible as well as the most extreme
Moral and Civic Responsibility, in which example of human rights abuse. Given the
researchers observed that in the United international framework presented by the
States one of the subjects most frequently Universal Declaration of Human Rights
neglected in secondary and higher education (1948), the United Nations Convention for
is educating students to become political the Prevention of Genocide (1948), and the
actors who have developed the knowledge emerging body of international law available
base and competencies to understand and to to prosecute perpetrators of genocide;
utilize political power for specific ends Holocaust, genocide, and human rights
(Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont, & study provide students with an appropriate
Stephens,2003). Colby (2007) found that context to develop a human rights ethos,
most faculty prefer the integration of acquire skill sets appropriate to democratic
apolitical community service into participation, and learn how to combine
coursework and discourage student academic knowledge of what is taking place
involvement in projects that are political in in the world with the ability to effect
nature. Colby (2007) points out this change.
emphasis on apolitical civic learning
reinforces cynicism about the processes Holocaust/Genocide, Human Rights, and
necessary effectively to achieve justice for Student Engagement
all and leaves students little or no exposure
to opportunities to learn the skills that Since the late 1970s, scores of Holocaust
empower them to effect change. In fact, curricula have led middle, high school and
students and faculty “perceive very few college students to become aware of the
opportunities to become politically involved origins, implementation and legacy of state-

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sponsored mass murder. These courses have that this trend would diminish the
heightened students‟ awareness of the role importance of the Holocaust, study of the
bystanders play in allowing brutality and Holocaust has often been a critical catalyst
mass persecution to occur as well as the in the further development of teaching and
ways in which perpetrators are able to take learning about human rights. As students
advantage of economic, social and political and teachers understand the significance of
discontents to take power and introduce knowing the pattern of the Nazi genocide,
genocidal policies against “enemies” of the they begin to think about methods for
state. Many of these curricula include prevention before oppression reaches
sections on rescuers or upstanders who genocidal proportions in the present and
refused to go along with the perpetrators and future. Moreover, these courses routinely
sought to help the victims of oppression and stimulate greater effort on the part of
mass murder. Many of these curricula end students in middle school, high school and
by examining the legacy of the Holocaust, universities to involve themselves in
not only for the purpose of remembering campaigns to both stop and intervene against
those who perished at the hands of the genocide and mass murder throughout the
Nazis, but in more recent years, for the world. As Gollob and Weidinger (2010)
purpose of preventing contemporary argue:
genocide. (Florida Department of Education,
2000; New Jersey Holocaust Commission, in order to be able to take part
2003). in the various political
This trend may be traced to teachers and processes, it is not only
students who find it difficult to look at the necessary to have basic
past and ignore current instances of knowledge of political issues,
genocide and violations of human rights. constitutional and legal
Organizations like Facing History and frameworks and decision-
Ourselves and the Center for Holocaust and making processes, but also to
Human Rights Education at Florida Atlantic have general competences that
University seek to combine information, are acquired as part of other
emotional response and ethical reflection to subjects (such as
enhance civic awareness as reflected in the communication, co-operation,
following diagram. dealing with information, data
and statistics). Special abilities
and skills, such as being able to
argue for or against an issue,
which are particularly important
for taking part in political
events, must be trained and
promoted in education for
democratic citizenship and
human rights education (Gollob
& Weidinger, 2010, p.12).

Facing History and Ourselves. (2009, July). Agenda of the
New England Holocaust and Human Behavior Seminar Based on our experience with students and
teachers throughout the United States, we
Although some educators initially feared

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believe that Holocaust and human rights Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Through
education can and does prepare students to learning the concepts and mechanisms for
develop these competencies. With these achieving human rights, twenty first century
reflections in mind we will discuss Americans can play a critical role in
curricular considerations in the field of upholding the rights of individuals
Holocaust and human rights education that throughout the world.
foster the connection between knowledge, The creation of the United Nations at the
skill and action. First, we will examine the end of World War II specified the need to
origins, basic documents and organizations preserve freedom for all peoples throughout
of the modern human rights movement that the world.1 Early in its formation, the
provide norms for active citizenship in the United Nations supported the concept of an
twenty first century. Then, we will discuss international tribunal at Nuremberg to
two examples of Holocaust/genocide and prosecute war criminals, the Convention for
human rights curricula that incorporate the the Prevention of Genocide, and the
acquisition of academic knowledge, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
development of skills necessary for working Leaders of the international community
with local, national and international were aware that these measures were
organizations and specific opportunities that essential to combat aggressive war and the
allow students to learn these skills by taking mass brutality that characterized earlier
action. generations. Thus, the framers of the United
Nations Charter laid the international
Academic Learning: The Building Blocks cornerstone for justice, human respect, and
of the Modern Human Rights Movement genocide prevention. But, as Eleanor
Roosevelt, chair of the committee that
As human rights educators, we believe it framed the UDHR, observed, documents
is our role to help our students become like the Universal Declaration of Human
world citizens who are cognizant of the web Rights, “carry no weight unless the people
of relationships among people throughout know them, unless the people understand
the world, familiar with the founding

documents and institutions of international
1 The Preamble to the United Nations Charter states that
human rights law and skilled at using these
We the peoples of the United Nations determined to save
principles and institutions to uphold human
succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which
dignity. Indeed, American students should twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind,
and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the
be as familiar with these international
dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights
documents as they are with the United States
of men and women and of nations large and small, and to
Constitution and the Bill of Rights, which establish conditions under which justice and respect for the
obligations arising from treaties and other sources of
provided the basis for movements in the
international law can be maintained, and to promote social
nineteenth and twentieth centuries that
progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and
empowered disenfranchised Americans. for these ends to practice tolerance and live together in
peace with one another as good neighbours [sic], and to
The abolition movement, the suffrage
unite our strength to maintain international peace and
movement, and the civil rights movement
security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and
were all campaigns for change based on the the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be
used, save in the common interest, and to employ
notions of human dignity and equality as
international machinery for the promotion of the economic
articulated in the Declaration of
and social advancement of all peoples, have resolved to
Independence, the United States combine our efforts to accomplish these aims…(U.N.,
1945).

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them, unless the people demand that they be leaders were not protected from prosecution
lived” (Glendon, 2002, p. xix). Thus, by the international military tribunal. From
students need to become familiar with these this perspective it is easy to understand why
post World War II building blocks as part of the photos and film footage of the
their academic learning about genocide and defendants in the dock at Nuremberg is so
human rights. impressive. Here were the once all-
The earliest of these international legal powerful Nazi leaders now sitting as
and institutional mechanisms for defending defendants in a court of justice and being
human rights were the Nuremberg trials held accountable according to the standards
(1945-1949). These cases established the of international law.
precedent that individual war criminals Just as the newly created United Nations
could be held accountable for war crimes, had supported the implementation of the
crimes against the peace, and crimes against Nuremberg trials, it also adopted a
humanity in any location, not just their resolution on the Convention for the
respective homelands. Thus, the defendants Prevention of Genocide. Quite
at the International Military Tribunal (1945- unequivocally, the Convention stated that
6) and the twelve subsequent trials (1946-9) acts against civilian populations whether
were tried in Nuremberg, Germany, during peacetime or war were to be treated
although many of their crimes took place as violations of international law. Genocide,
outside of Germany. Justice Robert according to the United Nations, is defined
Jackson, the chief American prosecutor at as “acts committed with intent to destroy in
the International Military Tribunal whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or
eloquently opened the proceedings religious group, as such:
explaining that the deeds of these war
criminals must not be tolerated if the world a. killing members of a group
community was to survive and the rule of b. causing serious bodily or mental
law was to prevail. At the twelve harm to members of a group
subsequent trials, Chief Prosecutor Telford c. deliberately inflicting on the group
Taylor explained that Nazi war criminals conditions of life calculated to bring
were similar to eighteenth century pirates about its physical destruction in
who had no specific attachment to any whole or in part
particular country or state (Taylor, 1985). d. imposing measures intended to
This precedent of holding individuals prevent births within a group
accountable marked a major departure from e. forcibly transferring children of a
international law in the late nineteenth and group to another group” (U.N., 1948,
early twentieth centuries in which states, not n.p.)
specific individuals, were to be held
accountable for crimes against peace. Not only are these documents important
Another important Nuremberg precedent for students to learn, it is equally important
was the new role established for the to learn about the people who persevered in
international community in prosecuting and getting official, and international recognition
punishing leaders of nation states that for these documents. A case in point is the
commit wars of aggression. Just because career of Raphael Lemkin, the international
Germany had enacted laws permitting the jurist who dedicated twenty years to
persecution and murder of Jews, German developing a framework within international

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law to call attention to the crime of The vivification of such documents
genocide, called by Winston Churchill, a requires specific, practical skills to make the
“crime without a name” (Churchill, 1941). principles they espouse effective shapers of
Responsible for coining the term political will. As Glendon (2001) noted in
“genocide,” Lemkin was dedicated to her book about the framing of the Universal
finding a word that expressed the moral Declaration of Human Rights , A World
stain of planned mass murder so that when Made New, it was Eleanor Roosevelt‟s
the term was used, the world community political skill that moved the diverse
would immediately respond by seeking to members of the framing committee to
stop it and punish the perpetrators. As complete the document as we now know it.
Power (2003) noted in her prize winning Colby et al. (2007), of the Carnegie
study, A Problem from Hell, Lemkin was an Foundation, similarly observed that
extraordinary individual who focused his Frederick Douglas, Susan B. Anthony,
personal and professional life on making Martin Luther King, Jr., and Nelson
genocide the epitome of the greatest possible Mandela were consummate masters of a
evil that a group or nations could commit. range of political skills, including “skills of
Although genocide continues to occur in the political influence and action, skills of
twenty first century, Lemkin provided a political analysis and judgment, skills of
basis for treating it as an international crime, communication and leadership, and skills of
thus establishing a basis for prosecuting teamwork and collaboration” (Colby et. al.,
post-1945 government sponsored mass 2007, n.p.). Without these skills, their ideas
murder. would have remained unrealized ideals.
On December 10, 1948, just one day after As we noted earlier, the authors of
the U.N. adopted the Genocide Convention, Growing Up in Democracy (2010), argue
the delegates passed the resolution for the that active citizenship is best learned
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. through active learning strategies.
This document contains thirty articles that “Education for active citizenship is not just
framers believed constitute the rights of all about the absorption of factual knowledge,
human beings - rights inherent in the fact of but about practical understanding, skills and
being human, and rights that the world aptitudes, values and character. . . students
community should be committed to can learn as much about democratic
protecting. Eleanor Roosevelt, who chaired citizenship by the example they are set by
the committee for drafting the Universal teachers and the ways in which school life is
Declaration of Human Rights, did not want organized [sic], as they can through formal
it to be a legal instrument—she envisioned a methods of instruction” (Gollob &
moral document that would have all Weidinger, 2010, p.9).
individuals consider what should be done for Class-room based projects in two south
all human beings (Glendon, 2004). It was in Florida high schools illustrate this point
1948 and remains in the 21st century an well. The first, a one-day Human Rights
unfulfilled blueprint for humanity. But the workshop, offers an impressive example of
significance is that the Declaration exists as how students are introduced to the concept
an ideal to which human beings of every of human rights, the UDHR itself, practice
nation should aspire to uphold and honor. the skills necessary to formulate the key
concepts in the documents and apply this
Linking Academic Learning to Action knowledge and these skills to effect change

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in their own school. The second, an rights
awareness raising campaign and funding  a country where people are denied
drive that connects Holocaust remembrance human rights
with raising humanitarian aid for victims of  organizations that seek to preserve
the Darfur genocide is an excellent example human rights
of the effectiveness of connecting academic  film/video about rights
learning, the development of democratic
 a singer who signs about rights
skills and their application to real world
 rights your parents have/had that you
issues.
don‟t have
In March 2009, a group of language arts
 books about rights
teachers formed a semester-long learning
 human rights not available to
circle on democracy and service that brought
everyone living in the United States
together over one hundred students and
 rights that all children should have
culminated in specific student
everywhere in the world
recommendations for improving the learning
 the types of human rights violations
environment at their high school. The
that most disturb you
Human Rights Day Workshop on March 14

was one of two concluding activities for this
Following the gathering of specific
semester-long program. Prior to the
information and learning each other‟s
workshop, the students had learned about
names, the facilitator moderated a lively
the United States Bill of Rights, the United
discussion among students about six of the
States Constitution and the Civil Rights Act
topics. By the end of the activity the
of 1964. Thus, they were well-versed in
students showed an understanding of the
ideas and practices related to rights that are
similarities and differences between civil
inherent in one‟s citizenship in the United
liberties as articulated in the Bill of Rights
States. The Human Rights Day took them a
and human rights as spelled out in the
step further to learn about rights inherent in
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
the fact that one is a human being. The key
The facilitator then introduced the
components of the workshop were based on
students to a Facing History and Ourselves
active learning strategies and critical
activity designed to clarify the meaning of
pedagogy.
human rights that apply to all humans just
In order to help students understand the
because they are human. The activity,
connection between civil rights and human
“Human Rights? Where do you stand?”
rights, the workshop opened with a warm-up
involved students in the process of
activity based on the Amnesty International
determining what constitutes a universal
Human Rights Squares (Flowers, 2010). All
human right (Facing History and Ourselves,
students were asked to move about the
2011).
auditorium, seeking at least one specific
Students were divided into groups of
example of each of the twenty topics listed
seven, including one teacher and one college
in the squares. The topics included:
student facilitator. These groups then

studied a set of cards listing many of the
 human right
rights stated in the thirty articles of the
 a country where violations of human
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
rights are occurring
The students were asked to determine if the
 a document that proclaims human
right on each card should always be

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applicable, usually be applicable or presented its recommendation.
sometimes be applicable. The students in The students‟ evaluations of the workshop
each group discussed where they disagreed revealed how effective it had been for them
on the placement of each card. Heated to spend a day examining the Universal
discussions centered on a number of Declaration of Human Rights in this
placements. Moreover, students discussed manner. There were three major positive
how the language used in each card was too responses from the majority of participants.
vague or general and needed clarification. First, they appreciated learning from college
In essence, the students were going through student activists and felt inspired to do
a process similar to the one experienced by something themselves. Particularly
members of the original United Nations effective was the Hispanic immigrant who
Human Rights Committee who were started college with minimal mastery of
charged with framing a bill of rights for all English to become the Student Government
human beings. Only after this activity Vice President. One student summed up
concluded, did students hear a short what many thought of these presentations:
description of the difficult negotiations that they “helped open my eyes to what I can
characterized the meetings of the achieve” (South Broward High School,
Declaration‟s framers from Glendon, author 2009).
of A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt Another positive response reflected
and the Universal Declaration of Human participants‟ enjoyment of sharing ideas in
Rights (2002). small groups. They were excited to hear
Once the students learned about human colleagues expressing different opinions and
rights and the complexity of defining them, considering how they could emulate the
they were introduced to a diverse group of college student activists they had heard.
student leaders from a local university who One participant observed, “[B]ecoming
were engaged in a number of efforts to involved is not too hard. [All I have to do]
promote human rights. Among the leaders is talk to someone about joining or starting a
were activists in statewide Hispanic club.” Another student interested in forming
organizations, Save Darfur clubs, Amnesty a human rights club wanted to do so
International, and Migrant Workers‟ Rights. “because I‟ve realized I have strong
The student leaders explained how they opinions on human rights issues” (South
became activists and why they felt such a Broward High School, 2009).
commitment to their work. A third positive response was the
Following the inspiring presentations of participants‟ realization that they could take
university student leaders, the high school action. They began thinking about how they
students divided into groups of ten to could implement recommendations they had
identity three human rights improvements made at the end of the workshop and were
they would recommend for their school. eager to share their information with
This activity gave students an opportunity to students who had not attended (South
engage in negotiation, collaboration and Broward High School, 2009).
mobilization. And, in many cases the A minority of the participants were less
groups went beyond writing their positive. They were skeptical that an
recommendations to suggesting ways their individual, no matter how well educated,
recommendations could be implemented. could make a difference. They also doubted
At the end of the workshop, each group that individuals had the ability to “change

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people‟s prejudiced opinions” (South genocide in Darfur. These triangles are
Broward High School, 2009). marketed locally, nationally and
Fundamentally, the critics of the workshop internationally. Students have learned how
did not believe that the experiences of one to manage donors‟ funds and to connect
day could make people more tolerant and with national and international organizations
caring. Yet, even these critics admitted that so that their donations would be funneled
the experience had caused them to think directly to aid the victims of violence and
more about issues dealing with human rights genocide in Darfur. Using the internet to
(South Broward High School, 2009). expand the reach of their project, they
created a website, www.microgiving.com/
Remembering the Holocaust and Saving profile/trianglesoftruth.
Darfur: the Triangles of Truth Project Triangles of Truth began with five
students in 2007. Three years later, though
Students at another south Florida high the founders have graduated, their work is
school connected their knowledge of the carried on by many more students at this
Holocaust, genocide and human rights to high school and has spread to over thirty
action by forming a club to raise funds to schools in the United States, Israel and
support humanitarian aid to victims of South Africa. At participating schools,
genocide in Darfur, Sudan. In learning students display the triangles they sell in
about the lack of response from the world public places, including school cafeterias,
community to the plight of European Jews libraries, hallways and classrooms. As
during the Holocaust, these students were stated on the project website:
equally frustrated to learn that the world
community failed to respond to the plight of Together we can and will stop the
Darfuris in the 21st century. Realizing that genocide occurring around the world, for
bystander behavior on the part of nations the sake of those suffering and for the
and individuals contributed to the Holocaust, memories of the Holocaust victims who
as well as the recent genocide in Darfur, perished when so few people chose to save
students felt the need to take action. Not them. We hope to prove that we have
only did they link their academic learned from the lessons of the Holocaust
understanding of genocide to political and can use our knowledge to prevent
engagement, they also developed practical present-day and future genocide (Triangles
skills that enabled them to inform the public of Truth, 2011).
about genocide and raise funds needed for
intervention in Darfur (Triangles of Truth, What these examples demonstrate is that
2011). youth can marshal the energy, creativity and
With the guidance of a dedicated social partners to make the public aware of
studies teacher, they developed a strategic injustices and suggest possible ways to
plan. They created a club, Students for a create a better world once they learn not
Better Tomorrow, which researches the only what and why, but also how to do this.
names of Holocaust victims and prepared
triangles to commemorate the victims. In Conclusion
addition to Holocaust memorialization, the
Triangles explicitly link inaction during the These examples suggest that the
Holocaust with a call to help victims of competencies that these students developed

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through the marriage of academic vain for progress in the larger
knowledge, skill acquisition, and world (Black, 2000).
opportunities for taking action, are essential
elements in the education of rising It is equally clear that by linking
generations to make democracy function academic learning about genocide
well for all members of the society as well and human rights to opportunities for
as in the international struggle to achieve action both at home and abroad,
human rights for all people. Eleanor secondary and higher education have
Roosevelt (Glendon, 2002) who was so a critical role to play in preparing
instrumental in the creation of the Universal American students to engage with
Declaration of Human Rights noted that their counterparts throughout the
learning about human rights close to home world to advance respect for
was a critical first step in becoming fundamental human rights, including
advocates for human rights around the opportunities to learn the political
world. She observed: skills necessary to do this.
Preventing and stopping genocide, a
Where, after all, do universal profound violation of human rights, requires
human rights begin? In small a large, informed and active constituency of
places close to home --so close people who know how to use the framework
and so small that they cannot be of national and international law. Recent
seen on any map of the world. research by the young scholar Rebecca
Yet they are the world of the Hamilton (2011), strongly suggests the need
individual person. The for a profound paradigm shift away from
neighborhood he lives in; the national security concerns toward a concern
school or college he attends; the for human security, the very essence of the
factory, farm, or office where he Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
works. Such are the places Without this paradigm shift, without this
where every man, woman, and knowledge, and without these skills,
child seeks equal justice, equal demands for effective, timely global action
opportunity, equal dignity will continue to be slowed down as each
without discrimination. Unless new generation of grass roots human rights
these rights have meaning there, activists and global citizens are faced with
they have little meaning the equivalent of on-the-job training.
anywhere. Without concerted
citizen action to uphold them
close to home, we shall look in

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