Table Of Content

Satisfaction With College Major: A Grounded Theory Study Amy Milsom, Clemson University Julie Coughlin, National Counseling Group All college students must eventually choose and perceived barriers. In their social cognitive career complete a major. Many switch majors, and some theory, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) explained change it multiple times. Despite extensive that individuals make occupational choices based literature addressing factors that influence stu­ on self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations dents’ initial choice of major, few scholars have as well as environmental and contextual factors examined students’ experiences after enrollment such as socioeconomic status. Although these in a selected major. In this study, we used a theories differ, and none specifically addresses grounded theory study to investigate the experi­ decisions about college majors, they all highlight ences of 10 college students in their major with the importance of personal and environmental an emphasis on factors that influenced their variables in career-related decision making. (dis)satisfaction. An emergent theory explains the The initial researchers who examined predictors development of (dis)satisfaction with choice of of college major choice used large data sets (e.g., college major by highlighting factors related to Montmarquette et al., 2002), relied on general self and career awareness as well as personal quantitative measures involving surveys and as­ reflection. Implications for college academic sessment instruments (e.g., Galotti, 1999; Galotti et advisors are shared. al., 2006; Pulver & Kelly, 2008), or placed an emphasis on specific majors (e.g., Keshishian, [doi:10.12930/NACADA-14-026] Brocavich, Boone, & Pal, 2010; Marrs, Barb, & KEY WORDS: career development, college Ruggiero, 2007). Much of the existing quantitative major choice, college major satisfaction, decision research led to identification of relevant decisional making, program of study factors (e.g., expected earnings, curriculum re­ quirements, encouragement from family) or was Career development is a lifelong process focused on decision-making styles salient to requiring individuals to navigate numerous aca­ college major choice. In one study, Montmarquette demic and work-related transitions as they strive to et al. (2002) conducted research among students in achieve career goals, and choosing a college major business, liberal arts, science, and education fields is one of many career-related decisions that of study, and they reported that information individuals will make during that process. Nauta gleaned from family members who had attended (2007) suggested that, consistent with the way they college influenced undergraduates’ college major choose jobs, individuals tend to seek college decisions. They found that students make decisions majors that tap into their skills and interests, depict based on expected earnings from their major. They their self-concepts, or offer desired reinforcers. also defined expected earnings as a combination of Occupational satisfaction reflects a desired career the probability of success in the major, the amount development outcome, and identification of satis­ of effort needed to complete the program of study, fying college majors reflects a critical step in the and the expected earnings after graduation. They career development process (Montmarquette, Can­ reported differences by gender and by race; women nings, & Mahseredjian, 2002). To promote the were less influenced by expected earnings than future career satisfaction and success of students, were men, and Whites were less influenced by academic advisors play important roles in helping expected earnings than were non-Whites. advisees make decisions related to their college These studies on majors and decision making majors. have contributed important understanding about Career development theories provide different the factors, resources, and processes associated frameworks for understanding career-related deci­ with student choice of majors. However, little sions. For example, Holland (1997) suggested that research has been conducted to determine the level career choice is based on person–environment fit, of satisfaction of students enrolled in their selected and Gottfredson (1981) discussed the ways in major. Information on student satisfaction not only which individuals narrow down possible career adds to the literature base on majors and options based on factors such as prestige or decidedness but also relates to retention, change NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 5 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin of major, and academic performance (Graunke & (McLeod, 2011). Using theoretical saturation as Woosley, 2005; Nauta, 2007). For example, Nauta the criterion, we completed our study with 10 reported positive correlations between college undergraduates recruited from a large research major satisfaction and both grade-point average project we were conducting. We used purposeful (GPA) and persistence in the program of study. sampling to identify a fairly homogeneous set of Success in and completion of a college major both potential volunteers with experience choosing or manifest desirable academic outcomes and often changing their college major. Participants fit two foreshadow future career opportunities. Nauta criteria for inclusion in the study: They were found positive correlations between college major traditional-age students enrolled in their sopho­ satisfaction and career decision self-efficacy. Nauta more, junior, or senior year, and they had also suggested that the accomplishment of choos­ declared an academic major. ing a satisfying major may increase a student’s  The participants were studying in undergraduate confidence in making other career-related deci­ degree programs at a large research university in the sions. southeastern United States. The institutional The limited availability of published research on database indicates that the university enrolls student satisfaction with college majors culminates approximately 17,000 undergraduates with an in little information on which academic advisors estimated ethnic breakdown of 83% White, 6% can base their work with students with a declared African American, 3% Hispanic/ Latino, 2% Asian/ major. To help students achieve satisfaction as well Pacific Islander, and 6% other or unknown as eventual academic and career success, advisors ethnicities. Approximately 54% of the need to understand the process by which students undergraduates are male and 46% are female. The develop satisfaction with a college major. Ground­ study included six females and four males who ed theory methodology allows for an in-depth ranged in age from 20 to 22 years of age (median examination of processes, and we use this aspect of age = 21). The participants identified themselves as a qualitative study to develop a framework for White (n = 7), Black (n = 1), Latina (n = 1), and understanding college major satisfaction. Specifi­ multiracial (n = 1). Their self-reported GPAs ranged cally, we seek to answer: ‘‘What is the process by from 2.71 to 3.96 (M = 3.43), and they were which students become satisfied or dissatisfied sophomores (n = 1), juniors (n = 5), and seniors (n with their college major?’’ = 4). Seven of the participants had started their education at the university and the other three had Method transferred to the university after completing some We took a grounded theory approach to explore course work at another 2- or 4-year institution. college students’ experiences in their academic Participants were enrolled in majors that included major. Grounded theory allowed us to examine the chemistry, civil engineering, computer engineering, factors that influence college students’ satisfaction electrical engineering, marketing, material science, or dissatisfaction with their major, and it facilitated psychology, and sociology. the generation of a model explaining this develop­ ment of satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Strauss & Procedures and Data Collection Corbin, 1998). Specifically, under a grounded- We collected data via semistructured interviews theory approach, all participants experience the conducted by Coughlin via questions designed to process being studied. Strauss and Corbin (1998) delineated a grounded-theory research process of explore broadly the process of choosing and conducting interviews with participants, analyzing changing a college major. The interviews lasted data by coding it into categories, and developing between 20 and 50 minutes. Three overarching hypotheses to describe the interrelationships of discussion points were used to guide the interview: categories. In this manner, the theory that emerges (a) ‘‘Talk about how you chose your major’’; is grounded in data from the participants’ experi­ (b)‘‘Talk about your experience in your major’’ and ences. followed up with ‘‘How satisfied have you been?’’ and ‘‘What factors have affected your level of Participants satisfaction?’’ and (c) ‘‘Tell me about your decision The ideal sample size in grounded-theory either to stay in or to change your major.’’ Follow- research is determined by theoretical saturation up questions were used to elicit details from each (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), and the typical number participant. Coughlin recorded and transcribed the of participants ranges from 8 to 20 individuals interviews. 6 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major She shared the transcripts with the participants our college major at some point after applying to and scheduled additional sessions to discuss the our undergraduate institution. model that emerged from the data analysis (i.e., In this study, we used a number of methods to member checks). The postinterview member- ensure trustworthiness as per McLeod (2011) and check sessions lasted between 15 and 30 minutes. Creswell (2013). First, we acknowledged our own As per the consent form they signed, participants experiences and biases and bracketed our knowl­ received a $10 gift card at the conclusion of their edge and assumptions, letting the data guide the interview, and those who participated in the theory development. Second, we also used follow-up meeting received a second $10 gift memos and diagrams during the data analysis. card. Finally, we used member checking to affirm and refine the final version of the model. Data Analysis Results Following methodology described by Strauss The College Major Satisfaction Model and Corbin (1998), we used the constant The college major satisfaction model (see comparative method and analyzed the data via Figure 1) emerged from the participants’ descrip­ open and axial coding. We also used memos and tions of their experiences initially choosing a diagrams (as per McLeod, 2011) throughout the college major and while studying within their data analysis. Each of us independently engaged selected program of study. The model illustrates in open coding to identify major categories and the process by which the participants developed codes in the data and subsequently met to satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their college compare our results. The beginnings of a model majors. The program-of-study selection process emerged as we identified stages and factors relied on the numerous and varied opportunities related to college major satisfaction. After coming by which the participants could gain insight, to consensus on the stages and factors, we particularly related to their interests, abilities, and reviewed the data again and independently values, as well as careers. According to partici­ engaged in axial coding to offer further explana­ pants, each experiential option provided them tion for the findings. We met again to compare with different kinds of information that they our findings so that we could subsequently contemplated; that is, reaching a state of satis­ identify key constructs and develop a model (as faction or dissatisfaction hinged on the student’s per McLeod, 2011) that reflects the numerous ability to reflect on the learning acquired through personal and environmental factors influential in the various situations. Feelings of satisfaction or college major satisfaction. We shared in person or dissatisfaction became clearer over time as the via e-mail the model with interview participants participants gained insight and factored new to gather their feedback and to check for information into existing knowledge, helping accuracy. them gain a more comprehensive understanding of themselves and of careers. Researchers and Trustworthiness The college major satisfaction model (Figure Creswell (2013) discussed the importance of 1) illustrates the way specific kinds of opportu­ addressing researcher bias, and we considered our nities lead to self and career awareness; it also own profiles. The first author, Milsom, is White, demonstrates the ways reflection about self and female, and has worked for 20 years as a middle, career results in college major satisfaction or high school, or college counselor. Most recently, dissatisfaction. In addition, the model illustrates as a counselor educator, Milsom worked with that students do not reach a point of satisfaction numerous high school and college students or dissatisfaction in a completely linear process. choosing or changing their college major. The Participants reportedly sought out opportunities second author, Coughlin is White, female, and to acquire information such that they engaged in was completing her master’s degree in counselor ongoing cycles of embracing or seeking specific education with an emphasis in clinical mental chances to increase self or career awareness. They health at the time the research was conducted. subsequently reflected on the knowledge they Coughlin has completed a 600-hour internship at acquired through pursuit of opportunities. Study a college counseling center and worked with participants indicated that they gleaned insight numerous students struggling with concerns through interactions with instructors, peers, related to their college major. Both of us changed advisors, and people employed in the workforce NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 7 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin Figure 1. The college major satisfaction model as well as activities such as completing assign­ and realized that I really like sociology,’’ and when ments, attending class, and engaging in internship discussing an elective course another student and other work experiences. stated, ‘‘I really liked it; it was like an intro class but it—I learned like a lot of cool things.’’ Others Process of Gaining Self-awareness commented that they may have recognized their The participants experienced numerous oppor­ latent interests sooner if they had been exposed to a tunities that helped them increase their self- variety of courses early in their college experience: awareness of interests, abilities, and values. Other ‘‘If I had had a broader, uh, selection of classes my situations helped them solidify their current freshman year I may have chosen something recognition of self factors. different [for my major].’’ Identifying interests. For many participants, The participants’ interests also came into focus clarity regarding interests emerged from opportu­ as a result of interactions with course instructors nities related to class content. For example, and other undergraduates. One participant stated, preparing for class led some participants to realize ‘‘I think teachers definitely can really, like if they were either more or less interested in their you’re on the fence about something and you’re major than they had originally thought: ‘‘I was not sure about it they can definitely make an sitting there either hating what I was reading for impact on whether or not you like the subject.’’ marketing [major] or loving what I was reading for Another stated, ‘‘My psych teachers are all pretty psychology [elective].’’ Many participants indicat­ interesting and it just made me really like going to ed that enrolling in a general education or elective class.’’ In another perspective on the influence of course helped them gain awareness of other instructors, one student explained feeling dis­ interests outside their major. One interviewee couraged after a chemistry teacher voiced a lack stated, ‘‘I just started taking some of those classes of interest in teaching: ‘‘They’d rather do their 8 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major own research and complain about being in the For some students, experiences confirmed classroom; it makes it that much harder to want to their abilities: ‘‘I had like three or four marketing be there as a student.’’ internships. . . . I’m good at it. ’’ Participants who valued feeling connected to Identifying values. The participants gained people in class reported the influence of peers on awareness of their values through class content, their satisfaction with a major: ‘‘I had some internship experiences, and interactions with peers friends in my classes so it was like okay to go to and instructors. For example, after learning through class.’’ Conversely, a lack of connection with classes and internship experiences about specific fellow peers precipitated disinterest in the major future work prospects, one participant discussed for one respondent: ‘‘I have a lot of classes with a her values: ‘‘I really like the idea that I’m gonna be lot of the same people, and uh, it’s just a lot of involved in something that’s gonna have a lasting people that I don’t really mesh with that well.’’ impact. . . . I’d be contributing something to Identifying abilities. According to participants, society that would actually—you know, people peers proved instrumental in helping participants would need it and it’d be useful.’’ Another gain awareness of their abilities. For example, one student indicated that those opportunities helped student gained confidence after comparing his her recognize the importance of liking a job and experience with those of his peers: ‘‘The people that such enjoyment offers a reason to feel satisfied: ‘‘Instead of looking at what’s practical around me, you know, I am able to observe, you and what’s gonna make me a lot of know, upperclassmen and fellow classmates, you money . . .I’ ve sort of moved up something I know, with the same difficulties but they’re also, enjoy at number one.’’ they’re also managing.’’ Another participant de­ Regarding peer influence, one respondent cided to pursue law school after learning about a validated her values through a combination of friend’s experience: ‘‘One of my friends is applying class content as well as interactions with peers to law school, and I, like, took his LSAT book, and and instructors, I, like, took some practice tests just for fun, and like I said, I did really good on them.’’ I think kind of the reason that everyone else I The participants also gained insight into their know got into it is because you can make a abilities as a result of demonstrated skills through lot of money off of it. . . . So then the more I class performance, internships, and work experi­ kinda got to, like, be around all these people ences. One interviewee realized that she exhibited that are in the major and talk to the stronger capabilities in elective classes and began professors and start taking a lot more classes to doubt that her science major was a source of and everything, it just kinda seemed [pause] satisfaction for her: slimy[.] And then I was getting the opposite from psychology where it’s all about finding Basically it was biology and chemistry were stuff out and helping people learn more stuff just impossible, that was not my, my field. I about themselves . . .and it made me happy put all of my work into them and got lower too, so that . . . it made me angry to go to my grades and put almost no work into the marketing classes. others and they just came really, really, I understood the material very well. Process of Gaining Career Awareness The participants entered college with varying Another participant’s academic struggles encour­ levels of career awareness based on different aged her to question her chosen field: types and levels of opportunities for exposure to occupational information during high school. Any time that I had a semester where I Many of their college major choices reflected struggled grade-wise is when I doubted decisions made with little to no exploration; for myself that, whether or not it was what I example, one respondent explained, ‘‘My dad was really should be doing ’cause I felt like if I an engineer, and I was always pretty good at was good at it, that meant that I was, you math. . . . I didn’t really have any other, like, know, and getting good grades then, you burning desire to do anything else, so I just kinda know, it would be something that I was okay decided I would try that [engineering].’’ A student with. majoring in business indicated, ‘‘Basically I didn’t NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 9 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin know what I wanted to do and it’s [business] cially when they addressed their intended career kinda general, and um, I don’t know, I thought it path. In fact, information gathered from individ­ was something I could be good at.’’ Many of the uals familiar with various occupations—including participants either lacked information or ex­ people in the workforce and academic advisors— pressed inaccurate knowledge about their major helped the participants gain an accurate under­ and occupations related to their major. Opportu­ standing of the scope of practice as well as nities during college were instrumental in helping positive and negative aspects of various occupa­ them gain more understanding about occupations tions. For example, while visi ting a family related and not related to their major. member in the hospital, one participant majoring Information acquired from class content and in nursing spoke with the hospital staff about course-related internships and work experiences various specialties in nursing as well as in related helped increase student awareness of the day-to­ medical professions. Another student observed day requirements of occupations related to their the difficulties of a family member graduating major. One participant described waiting until her with the same college degree as she was pursuing: second year before she received information in ‘‘My sister-in-law was a marketing major when class about occupational information specific to she came here. . . . She left here with a general her major: marketing degree and has, like, no job prospects in marketing.’’ Similarly, information from aca­ Because when I first started engineering, you demic advisors familiar with the job field and know, they tend to give you the broad desired career path of participants offered helpful general classes . . . and now the classes are input. For example, one participant explained that like narrowing down. . . . So it was just her academic advisor pointed out facts about the easier to see what kind of, um, things, you likely work schedule that the advisee had not know, they do in the job, um, now that I’m a considered: sophomore and not taking the general classes. She’s a wonderful advisor . . . , but she tells it how it is, which is great because [pause] it Internships and work experiences where the made me realize that [the chosen career is] participants gained firsthand experience in the not something I wanted to occupy all of my field helped them understand the nuances of the time with. You know, she started talking day-to-day work they may encounter as well as about, like, if you work in sports marketing the skills and dispositions needed for success in . . . you will spend all of your time working the field. One interviewee commented that she and none of your time at home and you gained specific knowledge in an internship about won’t have any holidays. a job of interest: Some of the classes aren’t necessarily things Reflection that you’re gonna be actually doing when Students’ feelings of satisfaction or dissatis­ you get out. . . . That was something I didn’t realize until I got some internship experi­ faction with their college major resulted from ence. And then you go out to intern and reflection on the information they had learned you’re like ‘‘wait a second . . . depending on about themselves and careers. In fact, some where you’re working at, the type of work participants referred to engaging in extensive you’ll be doing is different.’’ self-reflection after gaining more career aware­ ness and exposure to various occupations. For Another student described work in her professor’s example, one interviewee indicated, research lab: ‘‘And when I did my research I became disillusioned with the whole idea to sit in The biggest thing I really considered was a lab, doing the same thing over and over and still my initial question that I knew what I over.’’ wanted to do just not how I wanted to do, Some participants discussed the career aware­ because there’s more than one way to help ness they acquired through interactions with people if that’s your only goal, um, and make people in the workforce or professionals, espe­ a living off of it. 10 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major For some participants, their reflections related to career awareness, and either satisfaction or dissat­ making sense of multiple factors, including how isfaction emerged as the participants developed a to rectify conflicting interests and abilities. For clearer sense of themselves and their goals. All of example, one participant explained, ‘‘ There’s a the participants discussed moments in which they difference between being good at it and actually reflected on the fit of their chosen major with their enjoying it.’’ Another said, ‘‘The homework levels long-term goals; this type of consideration com­ hasn’t been entirely positive, um, but then I’ve ports with Holland’s (1997) discussion of the also in some of my courses . . . I’ve actually importance of person–environment fit (e.g., inter­ enjoyed them.’’ ests, abilities, values) in relation to career satisfac­ Other participants described new insights that tion. By emphasizing the role of self-concept in resulted from their reflections: ‘‘ So it kinda relation to career satisfaction, Super (1980) also occurred to me that I needed to be doing discussed careers that fit an individual’s projected something that I loved rather than something that image. Consistent with Super, one participant I could finish and get out of the way and graduate discussed the emerging realization that he wanted with.’’ One respondent explained, ‘‘ I’ve always a job where he ‘‘contributed something,’’ and he wanted to be a teacher ever since I was little. I began searching for how he could best accomplish just—it took me a long time to realize that that’s this goal. what I was really good at doing. ’’ This student The participants’ identification of reflection in recognized that he could pursue a teaching career the process of gaining self-knowledge also closely through his current major. As another student aligns with self-authorship as presented by Baxter learned more about his major, the more he Magolda (2001). In summarizing Baxter Magolda’s imagined himself feeling satisfied with the chosen work, Pizzolato (2006) explained, career in the future: ‘‘ I really enjoyed that it; it was something that was multi-involved with like Because self-authorship combines both con­ other things so I didn’t feel like I was pigeon­ textual knowing and a student’s own inter­ holed into something.’’ nally defined goals, values, and sense of self, For some participants, one or two key it may help students make decisions that are moments seemed pivotal in confirming their logically sound, most comfortable, and most satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their major: likely to put them on a satisfying achieve­ ment trajectory (p. 33). I was sitting in class one day . . . and it was just really windy and the long vertical blinds Pizzolato expounded that self-authored students were, like, smacking me in the face. It was consider multiple perspectives, take into account just like an epiphany, like, ‘‘I can’t do this.’’ personal goals, and factor in limitations (e.g., Like I just didn’t wanna do it anymore, and financial, abilities) when making decisions. Based um, I went to my advisor right after class and on this description, the data indicate that partici­ was like, ‘‘Hey, I wanna get out of this.’’ pants in our study demonstrated self-authorship to varying degrees; for example, they referred to the Some participants discovered a major that seemed usefulness of feedback from various individuals, more congruent to them than the one initially discussed ways their major would or would not chosen, which prompted them to reconsider their allow them to pursue future goals, and talked about current college major: ‘‘Basically I heard about the financial concerns or their own abilities that psych, well I didn’t hear about, but I learned influenced their decisions. more, became better informed about sociology Although the participants in our study acquired through psychology, and I got a class and I took it knowledge and reflected on their experiences, the and I was, like, ‘Whoa, this is it.’’’ time lines for these milestones differed by individual. By the time some of the participants Discussion realized their dissatisfaction with their major, they No matter how they initially chose their college felt compelled to complete it for financial reasons. major, study participants described a similar Through proactive academic advising focusing on process of growing satisfaction or dissatisfaction career and self exploration, as well as identification with their major. Opportunities to interact with of and reflection about personal goals, students others and engage in their majors in various ways may gain critical self and career awareness earlier served as critical catalysts for increasing self and in their undergraduate programs so that they can NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 11 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin complete satisfying majors in pursuit of careers Although career exploration courses are often that fit their goals and skills. Academic advisors offered through a career services office, academic can encourage students to take advantage of advisors can collaborate with personnel in these opportunities such as benefited the participants in units to increase formal opportunities for students our study. to explore self and careers. First, academic advisors and career counselors might consider a Implications for Academic Advising coteaching approach. Advisors likely know Because many of the participants described course sequencing and major requirements better experiencing limited exposure to a variety of than the counselors, but the career counselors careers prior to entering college, some discovered may feel more comfortable than advisors leading majors in which they expressed more interest and career exploratory activities. Second, in joint ability than their initial choice. These findings efforts, information about career exploration suggest that academic advisors might encourage opportunities could be coordinated and dissemi­ students to take a variety of courses during the nated as part of orientation programs. Finally, the first year of college. Many participants realized two units could create specialized centers on during their sophomore or junior years that they campus that offer advising and career exploration were more satisfied with courses in a different specifically for students who have not declared a major and discussed concerns about the time and major, similar to the Explore Center at the money necessary to change and complete a more University of Nebraska. desirable program of study. Although most Because the participants identified experiential colleges and universities require students to enroll opportunities as very helpful in their understand­ in general education or elective course work ing of careers and of self (e.g., abilities), outside of their declared major, some students academic advisors might encourage students to must sequence introductory classes in their major seek out firsthand experience early in their and cannot accommodate the general education programs of study. Even when internships and requirements until later years. If they could cooperative work experiences are typically ex­ complete general education or elective course tended to those in a specific major, students often work during their first year, students may make complete them during the junior and senior year initial major choices that best fit their interests when financial concerns may make major chang­ and skills. Academic advisors might initiate es impossible. Furthermore, some majors are not discussions about the class order with those associated with field-based work. Academic who make curricular decisions. advisors can work collaboratively with course Because many of the participants described instructors and career services staff to advocate limited exposure to information about careers, for and facilitate students’ early interactions with academic advisors might offer screening to work or workers in fields related to their majors. determine which students, such as those entering In addition to facilitating self and career undeclared, might benefit from participating in a awareness, academic advisors also can proac­ career exploration course. Fouad, Cotter, and tively encourage student reflection of self with Kantamneni (2009) found that completion of a regard to potential careers and in relation to goals. career exploration course during the freshman Self-reflection of experiences relates to satisfac­ year was positively correlated with increased self- tion or dissatisfaction with majors, and academic efficacy and decreased career indecisiveness. advisors can provide formal opportunities for Similarly, Thomas and McDaniel (2004) reported student contemplation throughout the program of increased career knowledge and career decision- study. Specifically, they can use Pizzolato’s making confidence among undergraduate psy­ (2006) suggestions for promoting self-authorship: chology students who had completed a career By initiating discussions that encourage students exploration course. Students who, like many of to explore career options, identify goals, and the participants, initially chose a major based on examine the impact of choices on their goals, input from others (and thereby experiencing advisors can help increase students’ career career foreclosure) might be particularly good decision self-efficacy. candidates for this type of course. By conducting Many of the interviewees talked about the initial meetings with students, academic advisors positive and negative impact of their course might readily identify students with limited career instructors on their overall interest in their major exploration opportunities or little self-awareness. as well as their confidence in their abilities to 12 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major complete course work. Academic advisors em­ Limitations and Recommendations for Future phasizing student self-authorship could initiate Research regular discussions with students to reflect on Selection bias may characterize this study their experiences in their classes (Pizzolato, because the students who volunteered to partic­ 2006). Through these discussions, advisors can ipate may exhibit specific traits that differ from those who did not respond to the recruitment help students explore and process their feelings messages. We cannot know with certainty if the about and reactions to course instructors in model would have emerged differently with relation to other factors important to their career participants chosen in another way or in another decisions and future goals. In addition, academic place. The students came from the same univer­ advisors can provide information to faculty sity, and involving students from other higher members and other course instructors (e.g., education institutions may have resulted in a graduate teaching assistants) about the effect of different model. Also, this study serves as a first setting a positive tone in class, providing step in examining the process by which students encouragement, and helping students realistically feel satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their assess their skills. college majors. Although our results offer new Finally, academic advisors must recognize insight on the topic of college major satisfaction that they are not solely responsible for facilitat­ and the importance of self and career awareness ing students’ career development. The partici­ and reflection, future research should be conduct­ pants identified various individuals who contrib­ ed to expand on our findings. Specifically, other scholars should consider uted to their self and career exploration, and other means of participant selection and a new academic advisors should encourage students to methodology. For example, although the partici­ seek input from others on campus (e.g., career pants in this study were diverse, similar research services) as well as others who might extend with undergraduates who represent very specific some knowledge or experience related to college populations (e.g., first-generation, transfer, students’ future goals. Through collaborative nontraditional age) as well as those who attend relationships with higher education staff, aca­ different types of institutions (e.g., 2-year vs. 4­ demic advisors can contribute to large scale year) could help determine the applicability of the initiatives designed to help students achieve college major satisfaction model to different career and academic success. populations. Also, quantitative research is needed For example, academic advisors and career to examine more fully the relationship between counselors can collaborate with course instructors college major satisfaction and outcomes such as to develop and deliver curriculum for first-year completion of major, GPA, graduation rates, and experience courses that integrate career and self employment. Finally, researchers might use case exploration. Furthermore, they can share with studies to examine the process of gaining satisfaction or acknowledging dissatisfaction with students the importance of seeking opportunities a college major. to learn more about themselves and careers, expose them to available resources on campus, Summary and offer examples based on the findings of our Academic advisors assume many roles in higher study. That is, students may benefit from taking education settings, but facilitating successful out­ elective courses as soon as possible, talk to or comes for students forms the basis for them all. shadow people in various jobs, and initiate Helping students identify and complete a satisfying meetings with their advisor and career services college major can be accomplished through the personnel. Advisors also can help course instruc­ integration of intentional interventions and advoca­ tors develop and integrate projects that enable cy for campus-wide programming. The participants students to explore personal values, identify long­ in this study identified numerous factors that term goals, and consider the way their values and contributed to their self and career awareness, and goals inform career satisfaction. By proactively academic advisors can use the recommendations to educating students about self-awareness and provide intentional services to facilitate student career topics in collaboration with other higher awareness and reflection. Their collaborative efforts education personnel, academic advisors might with career services personnel, in particular, may best help students identify potentially satisfying prove fruitful in comprehensively and proactively majors early in their college careers. helping students choose satisfying majors. NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 13 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin References Montmarquette, C., Cannings, K., & Mahsered­ Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2001). Making their own jian, S. (2002). How do young people choose way: Narratives for transforming higher college majors? Economics of Education education to promote self-development. Ster­ Review, 21, 543–556. ling, VA: Stylus. Nauta, M. M. (2007). Assessing college students’ Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & satisfaction with their academic majors. Jour­ research design: Choosing among five ap­ nal of Career Assessment, 15, 446–462. doi: proaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. 10.1177/1069072707305762 Fouad, N., Cotter, E. W., & Kantamneni, N. Pizzolato, J. E. (2006). Complex partnerships: (2009). The effectiveness of a career decision Self-authorship and provocative academic making course. Journal of Career Assessment, advising practices. NACADA Journal, 26(1), 17, 338–347. 32–45. Galotti, K. M. (1999). Making a ‘‘major’’ real-life Pulver, C. A., & Kelly, K. R. (2008). Incremental decision: College students choosing an aca­ validity of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in demic major. Journal of Educational Psychol­ predicting academic major selection of unde­ ogy, 91, 379–387. cided university students. Journal of Career Galotti, K. M., Ciner, E., Alternbaumer, H. E., Assessment, 16(4), 441–455. doi: 10.1177/ Geerts, H. J., Rupp, A., & Woulfe, J. (2006). 1069072708318902 Decision-making styles in a real-life decision: Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of Choosing a college major. Personality and qualitative research: Techniques and proce­ Individual Differences, 41, 629–639. dures for developing grounded theory. Thou­ Gottfredson, L. S. (1981). Circumscription and sand Oaks, CA: Sage. compromise: A developmental theory of Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space occupational aspirations. Journal of Counsel­ approach to career development. Journal of ing Psychology, 28(6), 545–579. Vocational Behavior, 16(3), 282–298. Graunke, S. S., & Woosley, S. A. (2005). An Thomas, J. H., & McDaniel, C. R. (2004). exploration of the factors that affect the Effectiveness of a required course in career academic success of college sophomores. planning for psychology majors. Teaching of College Student Journal, 39, 367–376. Psychology, 31, 22–27. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psycho­ Authors’ Notes logical Assessment Resources. Dr. Amy Milsom is professor and coordinator of Keshishian, F., Brocavich, J.M., Boone, R.T., & the counselor education programs at Clemson Pal, S. (2010). Motivating factors influencing University. Her research agenda focuses on the college students’ choice of academic major. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Educa­ intersection of postsecondary transitions, indi­ tion, 74(3), 1–7. viduals with disabilities, and school counselor Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). preparation. Correspondence regarding this Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of article should be sent to her at amilsom@ career and academic interest, choice, and clemson.edu. performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79–122. Julie Coughlin earned MEd and EdS degrees in Marrs, H., Barb, M. R., & Ruggiero, J. C. (2007). clinical mental health counseling from Clemson Self-reported influences on psychology major University and is now employed as a counselor choice and personality. Individual Differences for National Counseling Group, Inc., in Virginia. Research, 5, 289–299. McLeod, J. (2011). Qualitative research in The research conducted in this study was counseling and psychotherapy. Los Angeles, approved by Clemson University’s Institutional CA: Sage. Review Board. 14 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015

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ERIC EJ1090137: Satisfaction with College Major: A Grounded Theory Study PDF

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Satisfaction With College Major: A Grounded Theory Study Amy Milsom, Clemson University Julie Coughlin, National Counseling Group All college students must eventually choose and perceived barriers. In their social cognitive career complete a major. Many switch majors, and some theory, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) explained change it multiple times. Despite extensive that individuals make occupational choices based literature addressing factors that influence stu­ on self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations dents’ initial choice of major, few scholars have as well as environmental and contextual factors examined students’ experiences after enrollment such as socioeconomic status. Although these in a selected major. In this study, we used a theories differ, and none specifically addresses grounded theory study to investigate the experi­ decisions about college majors, they all highlight ences of 10 college students in their major with the importance of personal and environmental an emphasis on factors that influenced their variables in career-related decision making. (dis)satisfaction. An emergent theory explains the The initial researchers who examined predictors development of (dis)satisfaction with choice of of college major choice used large data sets (e.g., college major by highlighting factors related to Montmarquette et al., 2002), relied on general self and career awareness as well as personal quantitative measures involving surveys and as­ reflection. Implications for college academic sessment instruments (e.g., Galotti, 1999; Galotti et advisors are shared. al., 2006; Pulver & Kelly, 2008), or placed an emphasis on specific majors (e.g., Keshishian, [doi:10.12930/NACADA-14-026] Brocavich, Boone, & Pal, 2010; Marrs, Barb, & KEY WORDS: career development, college Ruggiero, 2007). Much of the existing quantitative major choice, college major satisfaction, decision research led to identification of relevant decisional making, program of study factors (e.g., expected earnings, curriculum re­ quirements, encouragement from family) or was Career development is a lifelong process focused on decision-making styles salient to requiring individuals to navigate numerous aca­ college major choice. In one study, Montmarquette demic and work-related transitions as they strive to et al. (2002) conducted research among students in achieve career goals, and choosing a college major business, liberal arts, science, and education fields is one of many career-related decisions that of study, and they reported that information individuals will make during that process. Nauta gleaned from family members who had attended (2007) suggested that, consistent with the way they college influenced undergraduates’ college major choose jobs, individuals tend to seek college decisions. They found that students make decisions majors that tap into their skills and interests, depict based on expected earnings from their major. They their self-concepts, or offer desired reinforcers. also defined expected earnings as a combination of Occupational satisfaction reflects a desired career the probability of success in the major, the amount development outcome, and identification of satis­ of effort needed to complete the program of study, fying college majors reflects a critical step in the and the expected earnings after graduation. They career development process (Montmarquette, Can­ reported differences by gender and by race; women nings, & Mahseredjian, 2002). To promote the were less influenced by expected earnings than future career satisfaction and success of students, were men, and Whites were less influenced by academic advisors play important roles in helping expected earnings than were non-Whites. advisees make decisions related to their college These studies on majors and decision making majors. have contributed important understanding about Career development theories provide different the factors, resources, and processes associated frameworks for understanding career-related deci­ with student choice of majors. However, little sions. For example, Holland (1997) suggested that research has been conducted to determine the level career choice is based on person–environment fit, of satisfaction of students enrolled in their selected and Gottfredson (1981) discussed the ways in major. Information on student satisfaction not only which individuals narrow down possible career adds to the literature base on majors and options based on factors such as prestige or decidedness but also relates to retention, change NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 5 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin of major, and academic performance (Graunke & (McLeod, 2011). Using theoretical saturation as Woosley, 2005; Nauta, 2007). For example, Nauta the criterion, we completed our study with 10 reported positive correlations between college undergraduates recruited from a large research major satisfaction and both grade-point average project we were conducting. We used purposeful (GPA) and persistence in the program of study. sampling to identify a fairly homogeneous set of Success in and completion of a college major both potential volunteers with experience choosing or manifest desirable academic outcomes and often changing their college major. Participants fit two foreshadow future career opportunities. Nauta criteria for inclusion in the study: They were found positive correlations between college major traditional-age students enrolled in their sopho­ satisfaction and career decision self-efficacy. Nauta more, junior, or senior year, and they had also suggested that the accomplishment of choos­ declared an academic major. ing a satisfying major may increase a student’s  The participants were studying in undergraduate confidence in making other career-related deci­ degree programs at a large research university in the sions. southeastern United States. The institutional The limited availability of published research on database indicates that the university enrolls student satisfaction with college majors culminates approximately 17,000 undergraduates with an in little information on which academic advisors estimated ethnic breakdown of 83% White, 6% can base their work with students with a declared African American, 3% Hispanic/ Latino, 2% Asian/ major. To help students achieve satisfaction as well Pacific Islander, and 6% other or unknown as eventual academic and career success, advisors ethnicities. Approximately 54% of the need to understand the process by which students undergraduates are male and 46% are female. The develop satisfaction with a college major. Ground­ study included six females and four males who ed theory methodology allows for an in-depth ranged in age from 20 to 22 years of age (median examination of processes, and we use this aspect of age = 21). The participants identified themselves as a qualitative study to develop a framework for White (n = 7), Black (n = 1), Latina (n = 1), and understanding college major satisfaction. Specifi­ multiracial (n = 1). Their self-reported GPAs ranged cally, we seek to answer: ‘‘What is the process by from 2.71 to 3.96 (M = 3.43), and they were which students become satisfied or dissatisfied sophomores (n = 1), juniors (n = 5), and seniors (n with their college major?’’ = 4). Seven of the participants had started their education at the university and the other three had Method transferred to the university after completing some We took a grounded theory approach to explore course work at another 2- or 4-year institution. college students’ experiences in their academic Participants were enrolled in majors that included major. Grounded theory allowed us to examine the chemistry, civil engineering, computer engineering, factors that influence college students’ satisfaction electrical engineering, marketing, material science, or dissatisfaction with their major, and it facilitated psychology, and sociology. the generation of a model explaining this develop­ ment of satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Strauss & Procedures and Data Collection Corbin, 1998). Specifically, under a grounded- We collected data via semistructured interviews theory approach, all participants experience the conducted by Coughlin via questions designed to process being studied. Strauss and Corbin (1998) delineated a grounded-theory research process of explore broadly the process of choosing and conducting interviews with participants, analyzing changing a college major. The interviews lasted data by coding it into categories, and developing between 20 and 50 minutes. Three overarching hypotheses to describe the interrelationships of discussion points were used to guide the interview: categories. In this manner, the theory that emerges (a) ‘‘Talk about how you chose your major’’; is grounded in data from the participants’ experi­ (b)‘‘Talk about your experience in your major’’ and ences. followed up with ‘‘How satisfied have you been?’’ and ‘‘What factors have affected your level of Participants satisfaction?’’ and (c) ‘‘Tell me about your decision The ideal sample size in grounded-theory either to stay in or to change your major.’’ Follow- research is determined by theoretical saturation up questions were used to elicit details from each (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), and the typical number participant. Coughlin recorded and transcribed the of participants ranges from 8 to 20 individuals interviews. 6 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major She shared the transcripts with the participants our college major at some point after applying to and scheduled additional sessions to discuss the our undergraduate institution. model that emerged from the data analysis (i.e., In this study, we used a number of methods to member checks). The postinterview member- ensure trustworthiness as per McLeod (2011) and check sessions lasted between 15 and 30 minutes. Creswell (2013). First, we acknowledged our own As per the consent form they signed, participants experiences and biases and bracketed our knowl­ received a $10 gift card at the conclusion of their edge and assumptions, letting the data guide the interview, and those who participated in the theory development. Second, we also used follow-up meeting received a second $10 gift memos and diagrams during the data analysis. card. Finally, we used member checking to affirm and refine the final version of the model. Data Analysis Results Following methodology described by Strauss The College Major Satisfaction Model and Corbin (1998), we used the constant The college major satisfaction model (see comparative method and analyzed the data via Figure 1) emerged from the participants’ descrip­ open and axial coding. We also used memos and tions of their experiences initially choosing a diagrams (as per McLeod, 2011) throughout the college major and while studying within their data analysis. Each of us independently engaged selected program of study. The model illustrates in open coding to identify major categories and the process by which the participants developed codes in the data and subsequently met to satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their college compare our results. The beginnings of a model majors. The program-of-study selection process emerged as we identified stages and factors relied on the numerous and varied opportunities related to college major satisfaction. After coming by which the participants could gain insight, to consensus on the stages and factors, we particularly related to their interests, abilities, and reviewed the data again and independently values, as well as careers. According to partici­ engaged in axial coding to offer further explana­ pants, each experiential option provided them tion for the findings. We met again to compare with different kinds of information that they our findings so that we could subsequently contemplated; that is, reaching a state of satis­ identify key constructs and develop a model (as faction or dissatisfaction hinged on the student’s per McLeod, 2011) that reflects the numerous ability to reflect on the learning acquired through personal and environmental factors influential in the various situations. Feelings of satisfaction or college major satisfaction. We shared in person or dissatisfaction became clearer over time as the via e-mail the model with interview participants participants gained insight and factored new to gather their feedback and to check for information into existing knowledge, helping accuracy. them gain a more comprehensive understanding of themselves and of careers. Researchers and Trustworthiness The college major satisfaction model (Figure Creswell (2013) discussed the importance of 1) illustrates the way specific kinds of opportu­ addressing researcher bias, and we considered our nities lead to self and career awareness; it also own profiles. The first author, Milsom, is White, demonstrates the ways reflection about self and female, and has worked for 20 years as a middle, career results in college major satisfaction or high school, or college counselor. Most recently, dissatisfaction. In addition, the model illustrates as a counselor educator, Milsom worked with that students do not reach a point of satisfaction numerous high school and college students or dissatisfaction in a completely linear process. choosing or changing their college major. The Participants reportedly sought out opportunities second author, Coughlin is White, female, and to acquire information such that they engaged in was completing her master’s degree in counselor ongoing cycles of embracing or seeking specific education with an emphasis in clinical mental chances to increase self or career awareness. They health at the time the research was conducted. subsequently reflected on the knowledge they Coughlin has completed a 600-hour internship at acquired through pursuit of opportunities. Study a college counseling center and worked with participants indicated that they gleaned insight numerous students struggling with concerns through interactions with instructors, peers, related to their college major. Both of us changed advisors, and people employed in the workforce NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 7 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin Figure 1. The college major satisfaction model as well as activities such as completing assign­ and realized that I really like sociology,’’ and when ments, attending class, and engaging in internship discussing an elective course another student and other work experiences. stated, ‘‘I really liked it; it was like an intro class but it—I learned like a lot of cool things.’’ Others Process of Gaining Self-awareness commented that they may have recognized their The participants experienced numerous oppor­ latent interests sooner if they had been exposed to a tunities that helped them increase their self- variety of courses early in their college experience: awareness of interests, abilities, and values. Other ‘‘If I had had a broader, uh, selection of classes my situations helped them solidify their current freshman year I may have chosen something recognition of self factors. different [for my major].’’ Identifying interests. For many participants, The participants’ interests also came into focus clarity regarding interests emerged from opportu­ as a result of interactions with course instructors nities related to class content. For example, and other undergraduates. One participant stated, preparing for class led some participants to realize ‘‘I think teachers definitely can really, like if they were either more or less interested in their you’re on the fence about something and you’re major than they had originally thought: ‘‘I was not sure about it they can definitely make an sitting there either hating what I was reading for impact on whether or not you like the subject.’’ marketing [major] or loving what I was reading for Another stated, ‘‘My psych teachers are all pretty psychology [elective].’’ Many participants indicat­ interesting and it just made me really like going to ed that enrolling in a general education or elective class.’’ In another perspective on the influence of course helped them gain awareness of other instructors, one student explained feeling dis­ interests outside their major. One interviewee couraged after a chemistry teacher voiced a lack stated, ‘‘I just started taking some of those classes of interest in teaching: ‘‘They’d rather do their 8 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major own research and complain about being in the For some students, experiences confirmed classroom; it makes it that much harder to want to their abilities: ‘‘I had like three or four marketing be there as a student.’’ internships. . . . I’m good at it. ’’ Participants who valued feeling connected to Identifying values. The participants gained people in class reported the influence of peers on awareness of their values through class content, their satisfaction with a major: ‘‘I had some internship experiences, and interactions with peers friends in my classes so it was like okay to go to and instructors. For example, after learning through class.’’ Conversely, a lack of connection with classes and internship experiences about specific fellow peers precipitated disinterest in the major future work prospects, one participant discussed for one respondent: ‘‘I have a lot of classes with a her values: ‘‘I really like the idea that I’m gonna be lot of the same people, and uh, it’s just a lot of involved in something that’s gonna have a lasting people that I don’t really mesh with that well.’’ impact. . . . I’d be contributing something to Identifying abilities. According to participants, society that would actually—you know, people peers proved instrumental in helping participants would need it and it’d be useful.’’ Another gain awareness of their abilities. For example, one student indicated that those opportunities helped student gained confidence after comparing his her recognize the importance of liking a job and experience with those of his peers: ‘‘The people that such enjoyment offers a reason to feel satisfied: ‘‘Instead of looking at what’s practical around me, you know, I am able to observe, you and what’s gonna make me a lot of know, upperclassmen and fellow classmates, you money . . .I’ ve sort of moved up something I know, with the same difficulties but they’re also, enjoy at number one.’’ they’re also managing.’’ Another participant de­ Regarding peer influence, one respondent cided to pursue law school after learning about a validated her values through a combination of friend’s experience: ‘‘One of my friends is applying class content as well as interactions with peers to law school, and I, like, took his LSAT book, and and instructors, I, like, took some practice tests just for fun, and like I said, I did really good on them.’’ I think kind of the reason that everyone else I The participants also gained insight into their know got into it is because you can make a abilities as a result of demonstrated skills through lot of money off of it. . . . So then the more I class performance, internships, and work experi­ kinda got to, like, be around all these people ences. One interviewee realized that she exhibited that are in the major and talk to the stronger capabilities in elective classes and began professors and start taking a lot more classes to doubt that her science major was a source of and everything, it just kinda seemed [pause] satisfaction for her: slimy[.] And then I was getting the opposite from psychology where it’s all about finding Basically it was biology and chemistry were stuff out and helping people learn more stuff just impossible, that was not my, my field. I about themselves . . .and it made me happy put all of my work into them and got lower too, so that . . . it made me angry to go to my grades and put almost no work into the marketing classes. others and they just came really, really, I understood the material very well. Process of Gaining Career Awareness The participants entered college with varying Another participant’s academic struggles encour­ levels of career awareness based on different aged her to question her chosen field: types and levels of opportunities for exposure to occupational information during high school. Any time that I had a semester where I Many of their college major choices reflected struggled grade-wise is when I doubted decisions made with little to no exploration; for myself that, whether or not it was what I example, one respondent explained, ‘‘My dad was really should be doing ’cause I felt like if I an engineer, and I was always pretty good at was good at it, that meant that I was, you math. . . . I didn’t really have any other, like, know, and getting good grades then, you burning desire to do anything else, so I just kinda know, it would be something that I was okay decided I would try that [engineering].’’ A student with. majoring in business indicated, ‘‘Basically I didn’t NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 9 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin know what I wanted to do and it’s [business] cially when they addressed their intended career kinda general, and um, I don’t know, I thought it path. In fact, information gathered from individ­ was something I could be good at.’’ Many of the uals familiar with various occupations—including participants either lacked information or ex­ people in the workforce and academic advisors— pressed inaccurate knowledge about their major helped the participants gain an accurate under­ and occupations related to their major. Opportu­ standing of the scope of practice as well as nities during college were instrumental in helping positive and negative aspects of various occupa­ them gain more understanding about occupations tions. For example, while visi ting a family related and not related to their major. member in the hospital, one participant majoring Information acquired from class content and in nursing spoke with the hospital staff about course-related internships and work experiences various specialties in nursing as well as in related helped increase student awareness of the day-to­ medical professions. Another student observed day requirements of occupations related to their the difficulties of a family member graduating major. One participant described waiting until her with the same college degree as she was pursuing: second year before she received information in ‘‘My sister-in-law was a marketing major when class about occupational information specific to she came here. . . . She left here with a general her major: marketing degree and has, like, no job prospects in marketing.’’ Similarly, information from aca­ Because when I first started engineering, you demic advisors familiar with the job field and know, they tend to give you the broad desired career path of participants offered helpful general classes . . . and now the classes are input. For example, one participant explained that like narrowing down. . . . So it was just her academic advisor pointed out facts about the easier to see what kind of, um, things, you likely work schedule that the advisee had not know, they do in the job, um, now that I’m a considered: sophomore and not taking the general classes. She’s a wonderful advisor . . . , but she tells it how it is, which is great because [pause] it Internships and work experiences where the made me realize that [the chosen career is] participants gained firsthand experience in the not something I wanted to occupy all of my field helped them understand the nuances of the time with. You know, she started talking day-to-day work they may encounter as well as about, like, if you work in sports marketing the skills and dispositions needed for success in . . . you will spend all of your time working the field. One interviewee commented that she and none of your time at home and you gained specific knowledge in an internship about won’t have any holidays. a job of interest: Some of the classes aren’t necessarily things Reflection that you’re gonna be actually doing when Students’ feelings of satisfaction or dissatis­ you get out. . . . That was something I didn’t realize until I got some internship experi­ faction with their college major resulted from ence. And then you go out to intern and reflection on the information they had learned you’re like ‘‘wait a second . . . depending on about themselves and careers. In fact, some where you’re working at, the type of work participants referred to engaging in extensive you’ll be doing is different.’’ self-reflection after gaining more career aware­ ness and exposure to various occupations. For Another student described work in her professor’s example, one interviewee indicated, research lab: ‘‘And when I did my research I became disillusioned with the whole idea to sit in The biggest thing I really considered was a lab, doing the same thing over and over and still my initial question that I knew what I over.’’ wanted to do just not how I wanted to do, Some participants discussed the career aware­ because there’s more than one way to help ness they acquired through interactions with people if that’s your only goal, um, and make people in the workforce or professionals, espe­ a living off of it. 10 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major For some participants, their reflections related to career awareness, and either satisfaction or dissat­ making sense of multiple factors, including how isfaction emerged as the participants developed a to rectify conflicting interests and abilities. For clearer sense of themselves and their goals. All of example, one participant explained, ‘‘ There’s a the participants discussed moments in which they difference between being good at it and actually reflected on the fit of their chosen major with their enjoying it.’’ Another said, ‘‘The homework levels long-term goals; this type of consideration com­ hasn’t been entirely positive, um, but then I’ve ports with Holland’s (1997) discussion of the also in some of my courses . . . I’ve actually importance of person–environment fit (e.g., inter­ enjoyed them.’’ ests, abilities, values) in relation to career satisfac­ Other participants described new insights that tion. By emphasizing the role of self-concept in resulted from their reflections: ‘‘ So it kinda relation to career satisfaction, Super (1980) also occurred to me that I needed to be doing discussed careers that fit an individual’s projected something that I loved rather than something that image. Consistent with Super, one participant I could finish and get out of the way and graduate discussed the emerging realization that he wanted with.’’ One respondent explained, ‘‘ I’ve always a job where he ‘‘contributed something,’’ and he wanted to be a teacher ever since I was little. I began searching for how he could best accomplish just—it took me a long time to realize that that’s this goal. what I was really good at doing. ’’ This student The participants’ identification of reflection in recognized that he could pursue a teaching career the process of gaining self-knowledge also closely through his current major. As another student aligns with self-authorship as presented by Baxter learned more about his major, the more he Magolda (2001). In summarizing Baxter Magolda’s imagined himself feeling satisfied with the chosen work, Pizzolato (2006) explained, career in the future: ‘‘ I really enjoyed that it; it was something that was multi-involved with like Because self-authorship combines both con­ other things so I didn’t feel like I was pigeon­ textual knowing and a student’s own inter­ holed into something.’’ nally defined goals, values, and sense of self, For some participants, one or two key it may help students make decisions that are moments seemed pivotal in confirming their logically sound, most comfortable, and most satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their major: likely to put them on a satisfying achieve­ ment trajectory (p. 33). I was sitting in class one day . . . and it was just really windy and the long vertical blinds Pizzolato expounded that self-authored students were, like, smacking me in the face. It was consider multiple perspectives, take into account just like an epiphany, like, ‘‘I can’t do this.’’ personal goals, and factor in limitations (e.g., Like I just didn’t wanna do it anymore, and financial, abilities) when making decisions. Based um, I went to my advisor right after class and on this description, the data indicate that partici­ was like, ‘‘Hey, I wanna get out of this.’’ pants in our study demonstrated self-authorship to varying degrees; for example, they referred to the Some participants discovered a major that seemed usefulness of feedback from various individuals, more congruent to them than the one initially discussed ways their major would or would not chosen, which prompted them to reconsider their allow them to pursue future goals, and talked about current college major: ‘‘Basically I heard about the financial concerns or their own abilities that psych, well I didn’t hear about, but I learned influenced their decisions. more, became better informed about sociology Although the participants in our study acquired through psychology, and I got a class and I took it knowledge and reflected on their experiences, the and I was, like, ‘Whoa, this is it.’’’ time lines for these milestones differed by individual. By the time some of the participants Discussion realized their dissatisfaction with their major, they No matter how they initially chose their college felt compelled to complete it for financial reasons. major, study participants described a similar Through proactive academic advising focusing on process of growing satisfaction or dissatisfaction career and self exploration, as well as identification with their major. Opportunities to interact with of and reflection about personal goals, students others and engage in their majors in various ways may gain critical self and career awareness earlier served as critical catalysts for increasing self and in their undergraduate programs so that they can NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 11 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin complete satisfying majors in pursuit of careers Although career exploration courses are often that fit their goals and skills. Academic advisors offered through a career services office, academic can encourage students to take advantage of advisors can collaborate with personnel in these opportunities such as benefited the participants in units to increase formal opportunities for students our study. to explore self and careers. First, academic advisors and career counselors might consider a Implications for Academic Advising coteaching approach. Advisors likely know Because many of the participants described course sequencing and major requirements better experiencing limited exposure to a variety of than the counselors, but the career counselors careers prior to entering college, some discovered may feel more comfortable than advisors leading majors in which they expressed more interest and career exploratory activities. Second, in joint ability than their initial choice. These findings efforts, information about career exploration suggest that academic advisors might encourage opportunities could be coordinated and dissemi­ students to take a variety of courses during the nated as part of orientation programs. Finally, the first year of college. Many participants realized two units could create specialized centers on during their sophomore or junior years that they campus that offer advising and career exploration were more satisfied with courses in a different specifically for students who have not declared a major and discussed concerns about the time and major, similar to the Explore Center at the money necessary to change and complete a more University of Nebraska. desirable program of study. Although most Because the participants identified experiential colleges and universities require students to enroll opportunities as very helpful in their understand­ in general education or elective course work ing of careers and of self (e.g., abilities), outside of their declared major, some students academic advisors might encourage students to must sequence introductory classes in their major seek out firsthand experience early in their and cannot accommodate the general education programs of study. Even when internships and requirements until later years. If they could cooperative work experiences are typically ex­ complete general education or elective course tended to those in a specific major, students often work during their first year, students may make complete them during the junior and senior year initial major choices that best fit their interests when financial concerns may make major chang­ and skills. Academic advisors might initiate es impossible. Furthermore, some majors are not discussions about the class order with those associated with field-based work. Academic who make curricular decisions. advisors can work collaboratively with course Because many of the participants described instructors and career services staff to advocate limited exposure to information about careers, for and facilitate students’ early interactions with academic advisors might offer screening to work or workers in fields related to their majors. determine which students, such as those entering In addition to facilitating self and career undeclared, might benefit from participating in a awareness, academic advisors also can proac­ career exploration course. Fouad, Cotter, and tively encourage student reflection of self with Kantamneni (2009) found that completion of a regard to potential careers and in relation to goals. career exploration course during the freshman Self-reflection of experiences relates to satisfac­ year was positively correlated with increased self- tion or dissatisfaction with majors, and academic efficacy and decreased career indecisiveness. advisors can provide formal opportunities for Similarly, Thomas and McDaniel (2004) reported student contemplation throughout the program of increased career knowledge and career decision- study. Specifically, they can use Pizzolato’s making confidence among undergraduate psy­ (2006) suggestions for promoting self-authorship: chology students who had completed a career By initiating discussions that encourage students exploration course. Students who, like many of to explore career options, identify goals, and the participants, initially chose a major based on examine the impact of choices on their goals, input from others (and thereby experiencing advisors can help increase students’ career career foreclosure) might be particularly good decision self-efficacy. candidates for this type of course. By conducting Many of the interviewees talked about the initial meetings with students, academic advisors positive and negative impact of their course might readily identify students with limited career instructors on their overall interest in their major exploration opportunities or little self-awareness. as well as their confidence in their abilities to 12 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 Satisfaction With Major complete course work. Academic advisors em­ Limitations and Recommendations for Future phasizing student self-authorship could initiate Research regular discussions with students to reflect on Selection bias may characterize this study their experiences in their classes (Pizzolato, because the students who volunteered to partic­ 2006). Through these discussions, advisors can ipate may exhibit specific traits that differ from those who did not respond to the recruitment help students explore and process their feelings messages. We cannot know with certainty if the about and reactions to course instructors in model would have emerged differently with relation to other factors important to their career participants chosen in another way or in another decisions and future goals. In addition, academic place. The students came from the same univer­ advisors can provide information to faculty sity, and involving students from other higher members and other course instructors (e.g., education institutions may have resulted in a graduate teaching assistants) about the effect of different model. Also, this study serves as a first setting a positive tone in class, providing step in examining the process by which students encouragement, and helping students realistically feel satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their assess their skills. college majors. Although our results offer new Finally, academic advisors must recognize insight on the topic of college major satisfaction that they are not solely responsible for facilitat­ and the importance of self and career awareness ing students’ career development. The partici­ and reflection, future research should be conduct­ pants identified various individuals who contrib­ ed to expand on our findings. Specifically, other scholars should consider uted to their self and career exploration, and other means of participant selection and a new academic advisors should encourage students to methodology. For example, although the partici­ seek input from others on campus (e.g., career pants in this study were diverse, similar research services) as well as others who might extend with undergraduates who represent very specific some knowledge or experience related to college populations (e.g., first-generation, transfer, students’ future goals. Through collaborative nontraditional age) as well as those who attend relationships with higher education staff, aca­ different types of institutions (e.g., 2-year vs. 4­ demic advisors can contribute to large scale year) could help determine the applicability of the initiatives designed to help students achieve college major satisfaction model to different career and academic success. populations. Also, quantitative research is needed For example, academic advisors and career to examine more fully the relationship between counselors can collaborate with course instructors college major satisfaction and outcomes such as to develop and deliver curriculum for first-year completion of major, GPA, graduation rates, and experience courses that integrate career and self employment. Finally, researchers might use case exploration. Furthermore, they can share with studies to examine the process of gaining satisfaction or acknowledging dissatisfaction with students the importance of seeking opportunities a college major. to learn more about themselves and careers, expose them to available resources on campus, Summary and offer examples based on the findings of our Academic advisors assume many roles in higher study. That is, students may benefit from taking education settings, but facilitating successful out­ elective courses as soon as possible, talk to or comes for students forms the basis for them all. shadow people in various jobs, and initiate Helping students identify and complete a satisfying meetings with their advisor and career services college major can be accomplished through the personnel. Advisors also can help course instruc­ integration of intentional interventions and advoca­ tors develop and integrate projects that enable cy for campus-wide programming. The participants students to explore personal values, identify long­ in this study identified numerous factors that term goals, and consider the way their values and contributed to their self and career awareness, and goals inform career satisfaction. By proactively academic advisors can use the recommendations to educating students about self-awareness and provide intentional services to facilitate student career topics in collaboration with other higher awareness and reflection. Their collaborative efforts education personnel, academic advisors might with career services personnel, in particular, may best help students identify potentially satisfying prove fruitful in comprehensively and proactively majors early in their college careers. helping students choose satisfying majors. NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015 13 Amy Milsom & Julie Coughlin References Montmarquette, C., Cannings, K., & Mahsered­ Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2001). Making their own jian, S. (2002). How do young people choose way: Narratives for transforming higher college majors? Economics of Education education to promote self-development. Ster­ Review, 21, 543–556. ling, VA: Stylus. Nauta, M. M. (2007). Assessing college students’ Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & satisfaction with their academic majors. Jour­ research design: Choosing among five ap­ nal of Career Assessment, 15, 446–462. doi: proaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. 10.1177/1069072707305762 Fouad, N., Cotter, E. W., & Kantamneni, N. Pizzolato, J. E. (2006). Complex partnerships: (2009). The effectiveness of a career decision Self-authorship and provocative academic making course. Journal of Career Assessment, advising practices. NACADA Journal, 26(1), 17, 338–347. 32–45. Galotti, K. M. (1999). Making a ‘‘major’’ real-life Pulver, C. A., & Kelly, K. R. (2008). Incremental decision: College students choosing an aca­ validity of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in demic major. Journal of Educational Psychol­ predicting academic major selection of unde­ ogy, 91, 379–387. cided university students. Journal of Career Galotti, K. M., Ciner, E., Alternbaumer, H. E., Assessment, 16(4), 441–455. doi: 10.1177/ Geerts, H. J., Rupp, A., & Woulfe, J. (2006). 1069072708318902 Decision-making styles in a real-life decision: Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of Choosing a college major. Personality and qualitative research: Techniques and proce­ Individual Differences, 41, 629–639. dures for developing grounded theory. Thou­ Gottfredson, L. S. (1981). Circumscription and sand Oaks, CA: Sage. compromise: A developmental theory of Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space occupational aspirations. Journal of Counsel­ approach to career development. Journal of ing Psychology, 28(6), 545–579. Vocational Behavior, 16(3), 282–298. Graunke, S. S., & Woosley, S. A. (2005). An Thomas, J. H., & McDaniel, C. R. (2004). exploration of the factors that affect the Effectiveness of a required course in career academic success of college sophomores. planning for psychology majors. Teaching of College Student Journal, 39, 367–376. Psychology, 31, 22–27. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psycho­ Authors’ Notes logical Assessment Resources. Dr. Amy Milsom is professor and coordinator of Keshishian, F., Brocavich, J.M., Boone, R.T., & the counselor education programs at Clemson Pal, S. (2010). Motivating factors influencing University. Her research agenda focuses on the college students’ choice of academic major. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Educa­ intersection of postsecondary transitions, indi­ tion, 74(3), 1–7. viduals with disabilities, and school counselor Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). preparation. Correspondence regarding this Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of article should be sent to her at amilsom@ career and academic interest, choice, and clemson.edu. performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79–122. Julie Coughlin earned MEd and EdS degrees in Marrs, H., Barb, M. R., & Ruggiero, J. C. (2007). clinical mental health counseling from Clemson Self-reported influences on psychology major University and is now employed as a counselor choice and personality. Individual Differences for National Counseling Group, Inc., in Virginia. Research, 5, 289–299. McLeod, J. (2011). Qualitative research in The research conducted in this study was counseling and psychotherapy. Los Angeles, approved by Clemson University’s Institutional CA: Sage. Review Board. 14 NACADA Journal Volume 35(2) 2015

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