ERIC EJ1073534: Igniting Diversity: Actionable Methods and Ideas for Advancing Diversity in LIS Education in the US

2015·0.43 MB·English

by  ERIC

Igniting Diversity: Actionable Methods and Ideas
for Advancing Diversity in LIS Education in the US
Shari A. Lee
Division of Library and Information Science, St. John’s University, Email: [email protected]
Renate Chancellor
Department of Library and Information Science, Catholic University of America,
Email: [email protected]
Clara M. Chu
Mortenson Center for International Library Programs, University of Illinois Library at
Urbana-Champaign, Email: [email protected]
Howard Rodriguez-Mori
School of Information, Florida State University, Email: [email protected]
Loriene Roy
School of Information The University of Texas at Austin, Email: [email protected]
The Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE) appointed a
five-member Taskforce in 2011 to pursue the development of an ALISE Statement on
Diversity. Two years later, the ALISE membership voted unanimously to adopt the state-
ment. In an effort to move the statement from mere words on paper, the Taskforce
provided actionable models and ideas in an “ignite” session on diversity. In this collab-
orative piece, four members of the ignite diversity panel share their ideas, experiences,
and methods for advancing diversity in the classroom and beyond. Professors Renate
Chancellor, Clara Chu, Howard Rodriguez-Mori, and Loriene Roy provide ideas and
real world examples that can be readily implemented in the classroom, in research, and
at the institutional level. While the United States provides the context for these discus-
sions, many of these methods and ideas are readily adaptable to countries across the
globe.
Background and Introduction— diverse communities. Unfortunately these
Shari Lee librarians are a rarity. In fact, this very is-
sue was raised by librarians, library direc-
A long acknowledged, but growing, tors, and Library and Information Science
concern among library directors and (LIS) program directors who attended the
library science educators in the United Deans and Director’s meeting at the 2011
States is that today’s librarians need New York Library Association Confer-
unique skills, knowledge, and abilities in ence in Saratoga Springs. Attendees unan-
order to provide the cutting edge library imously agreed that many newly qualified
services the country’s growing number librarians are ill-prepared to work in di-
of distinctly urban environments require verse neighborhoods. The consensus was
(Wayne State University, 2008). This has that these librarians lacked the cultural
spawned the term “urban librarians” to experiences necessary to support the 21st
describe those who need to possess the century information needs of our increas-
cultural awareness to work effectively in ingly culturally diverse user populations.
J. of Education for Library and Information Science, Vol. 56, Supplement 1
ISSN: 0748-5786 © 2015 Association for Library and Information Science Education S47
doi:10.12783/issn.2328-2967/56/S1/6
S48 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
Similarly, the findings reported in the Edu- and/or at the institutional level. The ignite
cating Urban Librarians Summit state that session, which I moderated, was tremen-
an urban librarian should possess specific dously successful: attracting over 100 at-
cultural competencies, one of which is tendees, several of whom described it as
determined to be “an understanding and the “best” session they had ever attended
appreciation of various cultures, a respect at an ALISE conference. The informa-
for diversity and a willingness to deliver tion presented below constitutes a set of
library and information services to each actionable diversity resources upon which
and every patron” (Wayne State Univer- ALISE will continue to expand.
sity, 2008, p. 5). In this collaborative piece, four mem-
In considering this vision for diversity bers of the ignite diversity panel share
and cultural fluency in the profession as their ideas, experiences, and methods
well as LIS research and education, Clara for advancing diversity in the classroom
M. Chu urged the Association to consider and beyond. Drawing on her innovative
taking an official stance on diversity. Fol- teaching strategies, Renate Chancellor
lowing Lorna Peterson’s successful Presi- provides step-by-step instructions on in-
dent’s Program on diversity at the 2011 corporating assignments and activities
ALISE annual conference, an ALISE Di- that not only expand the cultural fluency
versity Taskforce was appointed to pursue of LIS students on an individual basis, but
the development of an ALISE Statement which also open the door to candid class
on Diversity. The five-member Taskforce, discussions on difficult issues. Clara Chu
led by Chu, examined how to define diver- argues that “a critical approach to library
sity, determined what should be included and information research requires engag-
in a diversity statement, and looked at the ing multicultural knowledge, attitudes and
impact such a statement would be expect- skills because most communities are mul-
ed to have on ALISE and its membership ticultural.” However, in pointing out that
in the US. This led to the adoption of a cultural awareness does not always lead
definition of diversity that was crafted to to the appropriate action, she provides ten
describe what diversity is, rather than how strategies aimed at reducing research bias.
it might be achieved. At the 2013 ALISE While making a case for the inclusion of
conference, the membership voted unani- cultural communication competencies in
mously to adopt the ALISE Diversity State- LIS curricula, Howard Rodriguez-Mori
ment. In the document, diversity is defined notes that the United States will become
as “the difference among us” (Lee and progressively diverse. He argues that the
Chancellor, 2011, as cited in the ALISE cultural factors that affect how people
Diversity Statement, 2012). from diverse groups communicate, per-
Given that LIS researchers, faculty, and ceive, and deduce meaning can have a
administrators often lack the know-how significant impact on interpersonal inter-
required to advance a diversity agenda, the actions. Therefore, LIS educators need
Taskforce also presented an “ignite” ses- to consider how to incorporate cultural
sion intended to move the statement from communication competencies into the
mere words to one that provided action- curriculum. Finally, Loriene Roy cham-
able models and ideas. The two-part ses- pions the integration of civic engagement
sion held at the 2013 ALISE conference in in LIS education as a means of advancing
Seattle, Washington took the following ap- diversity. She points out that through this
proach: (a) introducing the ALISE Diver- academic approach educators and students
sity Statement and next steps, and (b) pre- work together, which not only enriches the
senting a panel on diversity that provided students’ learning experience, but also sig-
actionable examples that could be readily nals a move from the lone-researcher model
implemented in the classroom, in research, to one that is grounded in collaboration.
Igniting Diversity S49
These scholars address a critical area Although many LIS scholars have
of need in LIS research and education, written about diversity (De la Peña Mc-
which, by default, is reflected in the pro- Cook, 2000; Fish, 1992; DuMont, Butlar
fession. Through the incorporation of their & Cayon, 1994; Gollop, 1999; Neely,
strategies and ideas into LIS research and 1988; Peterson, 1996; Honma, 2005), few
education, LIS professionals will gain publications provide examples of how to
ground zero perspectives of the difference incorporate diversity in the classroom.
among us, as well as an understanding of Moreover, while there have been elec-
how to effectively serve the increasingly tive courses, such as Ethics, Diversity and
diverse user populations across the United Change in the Information Professions at
States. These strategies not only encour- UCLA [University of California, Los An-
age thoughtful and reflective expression, geles], rarely do we see issues related to
but they also lay the groundwork upon diversity in core courses. The following
which researchers and educators can con- are three examples that have been used in
tinue to expand in an effort to effectively the LIS foundations course at the Catho-
incorporate diversity into current LIS ped- lic University of America, Department of
agogy and research. Library and Information Science Program.
Each has been used over the last five years
Exemplars for Incorporating and has been successful in fostering en-
Diversity in an Introductory Library lightening and provocative discussions
& Information Science Course— on diversity. It is important to note that a
Renate Chancellor holistic approach is applied when incorpo-
rating diversity in the foundations course.
In an era of controversial jury verdicts, Rather than focus on diversity for one or
voter suppression, and talk of compre- two weeks, it is important to address the
hensive immigration reform in the United issue throughout the course. This can be
States (US), a foundations course in Li- done through lectures, class exercises, and
brary and Information Science (LIS) is assignments.
ideal for incorporating diversity into the
curriculum. A typical introductory course The Diversity Awareness Quiz
is usually taught as a seminar that covers (http://www.edchange.org/
traditional themes such as the history and multicultural/quizzes.html)
nature of information and the role of li-
braries and the profession in contemporary A classroom exercise that has been
society. Emphasis is also placed on tech- very useful is the Diversity Awareness
nological innovation, values, principles, Quiz created by Paul Gorski (2013). Al-
legal, and ethical responsibilities of the though quizzes are not new the classroom
profession, which provide grounding for environment, this one has proven to be ef-
each student’s ongoing professional de- fective in generating good discussion on
velopment and leadership (Rubin, 2010). diverse populations. Since questions on
Evoking discourse on the current immi- the quiz do not specifically address infor-
gration dilemma and how it affects users mation professions, it is important that the
of information centers, or exploring what instructor provides context for students.
impact, if any, have the recent jury deci- For example, one question asks, “What is
sions and incidents of voter suppression the percentage of US schools that have no
had on information professionals and race teachers or staff of color?” When the an-
relations in the US is important. These swer is revealed to be 40%, students are
are all current societal issues that can be asked, “What does this mean for informa-
discussed in the classroom within the con- tion professionals?” This always stirs an
texts of diversity and LIS. interesting discussion.
S50 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
The quiz is also intended to allow stu- b) The daily earnings of the average
dents to understand, and possibly confront, CEO in the US
personal biases they might have about cer- c) The weekly earnings of the average
tain groups. It is always astonishing to see CEO in the US
how students respond to the answers to
d) The monthly earnings of the aver-
some of these questions. Often there is an
age CEO in the US
evolution of thinking on views of certain
groups at the conclusion of this session.
Students are appreciative of the opportu- The Luminary Analysis
nity to discuss this sensitive subject in a
comfortable, non-threatening, environ- Popular among students, the library lu-
ment. The following are three examples of minary analysis assignment has provided
questions (with answers in bold) that have a great forum for engagement with a sig-
been used: nificant luminary figure in LIS. Students
are required to write an in-depth analysis
1. According to the 2006 report from
and to present their findings in class using
the ACLU [American Civil Liberties
PowerPoint, Prezi, Youtube, etc. Lasting
Union], African Americans comprise
no longer than 15 minutes, presentations
more than 37% of people arrested for
must demonstrate the students’ under-
drugs use, 59% of those convicted of
standing of the luminary’s professional
use, and 74% of those sentenced to
contributions. Assessment is based on the
prison for drug use. African Ameri-
depth of knowledge, analysis, clarity of
cans comprise this percentage of drug
writing, and overall presentation. A list of
users:
recommended luminaries is provided for
a) 15% the students. Included on the list, for ex-
b) 30% ample, are: E.J. Josey, S.R. Ranganathan,
Augusta Baker, Regina Andrews, Pura
c) 45%
Belpre, Sandy Berman, Eric Moon, and
d) 60%
Judy Krug. Student presentations have of-
2. What percentage of gay, lesbian, bi- ten segued to discussions about the history
sexual, and transgender high school of discrimination towards certain groups
students report that their teachers in LIS. Therefore, a collective learning
“never” or “rarely” respond to ho- experience occurs—for the student who
mophobic remarks made by students, researches the luminary and prepares the
according to national study by the presentation, and for the class that learns
GLSEN [Gay, Lesbian & Straight Ed- about the luminary from the presenter and
ucation Network]? through the discussions that follow.
a) 15.1%
The Research Paper
b) 37.8%
c) 63.2% The core assessment for the course is
d) 84.5% a research paper in which students ana-
lyze an issue confronting the information
3. Based on a 2007 report from the Eco- profession. Students are strongly encour-
nomic Policy Institute, the annual aged to research a topic related to one that
earnings of the average full-time US has been covered in class, such as: policy,
worker is roughly equal to: technological innovation, ethical issues,
a) The hourly earnings of the average or diversity. The final product should
CEO [Chief Executive Officer] in present an exploration of the topic that is
the US well-researched, analyzed, and supported
Igniting Diversity S51
by documentation. In the past, students tributes to the development of informa-
have examined the demographic disparity tion practices. Likewise, by substituting
between library professionals and library “research” for “information” they can be
users; the research strategies and methods mindful of the potential biases while con-
used in public libraries to determine how ducting multicultural research.
users with disabilities are accommodated; Moreover, racism is a placeholder for
and the recruitment and retention of librar- other “isms” that signal social hierarchies,
ians of color. and oppression of the “Other,” their cul-
A foundations course in LIS educa- ture and history. It should be noted that
tion is designed to provide an introduction racism doesn’t need to be associated with
to critical issues facing the profession. overt acts of violence, such as burning of
Global challenges such as laws to protect books or destroying of tangible cultural
citizens, economic disparity, and criminal heritage, but includes silent acts of disal-
justice are covered, along with more tradi- lowing of cultural practices, speaking in
tional topics such as intellectual freedom, non-dominant languages, and not collect-
surveillance and security, and professional ing or recording minority histories, rend-
principles. Equally important are chal- ing them invisible.
lenges of information equity, access, pow- A critical approach to library and in-
er and diversity—diversity is more than formation research requires engaging
nationality, gender, race, physical ability, multicultural knowledge, attitudes and
or age. It is also language, religion, sexual skills because most communities are mul-
orientation, and educational background. ticultural. First, one needs to recognize
It simply is . . . the difference among us. (consciousness) the social construction
All of these current trends are important in of knowledge and information practices.
that they provide a grounding of the pro- That is, research needs to be conducted
fession. Therefore, emerging information with attention to information as a social
professionals must be aware and be able process. Second, by questioning (critical
to grapple with these controversial issues, reflection) our assumptions and attitudes
and what they mean for users nationally about the world (social, professional, in-
and globally if they are going to be suc- stitutional) around us, we are critically ex-
cessful in the 21st century and beyond. amining behavior and practices to shine a
light on any injustices. Third, by acting
Perspective and Bias in (change) to remove systemic barriers and
Information and Research— to give voice to those silenced, we can be-
Clara M. Chu gin to change both research and informa-
tion practices for the better.
Information both reflects and shapes so- In order to reduce sexism in research
ciety, as society both reflects and shapes and adopt a feminist methodology, Margrit
information. It is this interdependent Eichler (1988) wrote Nonsexist Research
worldview that has allowed legal scholars, Methods, which identified seven sexist
who use critical race theory as a research problems in research and provided strate-
lens, to uncover the intersections between gies to address them. Eichler (1988) noted
the law and racism. Invoking the work of that the basic problem that perpetuates
critical race theorist Mari Matsuda (1996, biases related to gender/sex in research is
p. 52), and positioning it within library and androcentricity, and Chu (2014) noted that
information studies (LIS), LIS researchers the basic problem related to cultural/racial
are called to uncover and understand the bias in research is ethnocentrism. Andro-
ways in which information supports rac- centricity is the social condition that fa-
ism and other forms of oppression, and the vors men, and ethnocentrism is the social
degree to which racism/oppression con- condition which privileges mainstream
S52 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
culture and the predominant race. Eichler mainly White library users were stud-
later expanded her work with Mary Anne ied. Conversely, over-specificity oc-
Burke, to develop the BIAS FREE Frame- curs in a study when it is impossible
work (2006), a three-dimensional matrix to determine if the findings or other
that identifies and eliminates biases created aspects of the research are applicable
by social hierarchies such as sexism, rac- to one or all races/cultures/ethnici-
ism, ableism, ageism, etc. found in research, ties. Many of the problems associated
legislation, programs and other practices. with biased or oppressive language fit
in this category (e.g., racist language,
Seven Cultural Biases in Research cultural omission, ethnic exclusion,
etc.). For example, in a study that uses
Informed by Eichler (1988), Chu (2014) the term Hispanic, does it also include
proposed seven cultural biases in order to people from Spain, and when the term
identify and eliminate cultural and racial White is used, do people of Middle
biases when conducting research. These Eastern and North African descent
ethnocentric problems, except the concept consider themselves in this category,
of “privilege,” parallel Eichler’s seven which is how they are currently classi-
sexist problems. fied in the US Census?
3. Culture/race insensitivity—Insensi-
1. Ethnocentrism—This is the act of tivity takes place in research when
judging another culture using the culture/race is ignored as a social vari-
norms of one’s own culture, con- able. If the aim of a study is to be able
sciously or unconsciously, and consid- to access the community and obtain au-
ering it more important or significant thentic responses, the cultural practic-
than others. In the research process, es of the community under study need
-ethnocentrism occurs when research- to be adopted, as in those communi-
ers, who belong to the majority cul- ties that have norms about who may
ture/race, overlook or devalue other interact with an older person or some-
cultures and their communities. Thus, one of a specific gender, and how they
research is conducted in accordance engage in these circumstances. Other
with the parameters of the majority examples include instances when race
culture. In the United States (US) and or culture is not considered in a study,
much of the Western world, the White i.e., not used as an analytic variable, or
race and their respective cultures are when race and culture is considered as
considered at the center, and minori- the only analytic variable rather than
ties are marginalized or oppressed, a multivariate category. When study-
and are viewed as passive objects ing ethnic or racial groups, the use of
rather than active subjects, acted upon additional variables such as length of
rather than being actors. time in country, knowledge of heri-
2. Over-generalization, over-specificity— tage language, ethnic media use, etc.
Over-generalization occurs when one would reveal aspects of the group’s
cultural/racial group has been stud- experience or circumstances that are
ied (sample) and is generalized to all associated with observations related
cultures/races. An example would be to race or culture.
research on e-book use in libraries in 4. Double Standards—A study uses dou-
the Southern States of the US (where ble standards when it treats or mea-
historically there are large numbers of sures identical behavior, traits, or situ-
African Americans), which used lan- ations differently. For example, in the
guage that generalized the findings US, when discussing film, the label
to the region, but did not specify that Foreign Films rather than Internation-
Igniting Diversity S53
al Films is often used, which results objectivity is valued, English is the
in the categorization of non-US films language of communication, and fa-
as “Other.” In the music field, the cat- miliarity with consumer research and
egory World Music has been used to other forms of surveys is the norm.
group the various types of music out- 7. Culture/race dichotomism—Dichot-
side the US In contrast many more la- omism occurs when races/cultures/
bels exist to recognize the variety of ethnicities are treated as discrete cat-
music in the US such as jazz, blues, egories, attributing human character-
country, and pop. istics to a race/culture/ethnicity, and
5. Culture/race appropriateness—Ap- ignoring intra-group differences. This
propriateness is present when human leads to an exaggeration of differenc-
characteristics are assigned only to es rather than an acknowledgement of
one or another culture/race, and they both differences and similarities. An
are very important in the race/culture/ example of this is when a minority
ethnicity. Some cultures have certain group is associated with a feature or
values, traditions or practices, but it stereotype and it is attributed to all in
doesn’t mean that everyone in the the group, such as being good dancers
cultural group applies them or cannot or math geniuses.
adjust depending on the cultural mi-
lieu. Culture is pervasive but not im- Ten Strategies to Reduce Research Bias
mutable (e.g., nature vs. nurture). For
example, in Latin American culture, Although researchers may be aware of
there is an orientation toward the pres- and learn the research biases noted above,
ent, so there is flexibility toward the awareness or understanding doesn’t nec-
notion of time. Thus, in social circum- essarily lead to counter-action. Thus, the
stances, there is a reference to “Latino following strategies offer essential and do-
time,” which for some means arriving able actions to reduce research bias:
late, but it means that one will arrive to
the social event at the time that is ap- 1. Consider culture/race as a research
propriate to the individual rather than factor. All research should consider
necessarily at the start of the event. In culture/race as influencing the re-
professional circumstances, however, searcher or study, and as appropriate,
punctuality is standard practice. adopt it as a social variable for study.
6. Privilege—In research, privilege oc- Furthermore, researchers need to con-
curs when researchers are a part of sider a multivariate approach to under-
the dominant culture/race, hold spe- standing culture and/or race.
cific assumptions to be normative, and 2. Understand how to conduct research
don’t have to think about or adapt their within the applicable sociocultural
research practices because the system context. When conducting research of
is made for members of the dominant a community outside one’s own, there
group. Moreover, in contrast to eth- is a need to learn and adopt culturally
nocentrism, which emphasizes how appropriate and relevant methodology
other cultures/races are judged, privi- and methods. By applying cultural rel-
lege is the set of advantages or immu- ativism, the researcher can understand
nities that researchers who belong to another culture in its own terms and
the dominant culture/race have. In the using its own norms and rules.
US, for example, Western theories and 3. Question objectivity and subjectivity.
research methodologies are taught, In the name of objectivity, research
and assumed to be applicable for is overlooked as a social act in order
any research context by researchers, for it to be deemed robust. However,
S54 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
by acknowledging subjectivity in re- members? Funding for research on
search, it allows for a clearer interpre- multicultural or minority issues is of-
tation of the findings. Thus, research ten targeted or a one-time effort, lead-
is in fact more robust when there is ing to one-time research that is not
transparency, which can be achieved sustained, and/or to drive-by research,
by reporting any issues in a “limita- where researchers are only interested
tions” statement often found in re- in the research as an object and not a
search publications, or by adding a subject, without a sustained commit-
separate positionality or transparency ment to the community under study.
statement. 7. Use the appropriate language. Be
4. Recognize one’s positionality. Re- cognizant about language use, in
searchers should know their limits, terms of using language that does not
weaknesses, and attitudes regarding offend, language at the appropriate
the research topic, methodologies, and level of understanding, and the lan-
methods in order to identify whether guage that the subject prefers, which
and what assistance and knowledge may not be the language spoken by the
they need, and to maintain transpar- researcher(s).
ency through stating the study’s limi- 8. Understand authenticity vs. author-
tations or the researchers’ positions. ity. When considering the intellectual
5. Engage in reflexivity. By reflecting on capital of researchers and subjects,
the entire research process and con- the notions of authority and authen-
text, the researcher is systematically ticity need to be clear and considered.
attending to their effect on the study, Chu (2000) describes authority (es-
and how these actions, attitudes, val- tablished reputation) as held by those
ues, and beliefs impact knowledge who have subject mastery or expertise,
construction. Researchers can use gained through academic training, ex-
journaling to reflect, which allows tensive experience, or established or
them to make the research process it- proven through prior work. Authority
self a focus of inquiry. Overt biases is also reflected in the way that factual
may be apparent in the regular course evidence is presented or documented
of research, but this reflexive exercise in a work by footnotes or references.
is critical in identifying unintended Authenticity (being true to culture),
discrimination, such as micro-aggres- on the other hand, refers to knowledge
sions. A micro-aggresion is an action that is realistic and true to the cultures
or expression that, while made without presented, to the situation, and to life
conscious choice, has the same effect based on the actual experience or per-
as conscious, intended discrimination. spective of the culture itself or created
For example, when one asks a person by members of the particular cultures.
of color “where are you from?” it sig- It presents the internal perspective
nals to that individual their foreigner rather than external perspective of a
status. culture/race.
6. Attend to Intentionality. Research is 9. Diversify the research community.
not just for research or knowledge’s By having researchers from different
sake. It is critical to know the reason communities and experiences, diver-
for conducting a study and its poten- sity creates the conditions for not only
tial impact. In learning about the edu- diversity of research topics pursued
cation performance of a community, but also of methods and methodolo-
for example, is it only to understand gies applied. A more diverse research
the community, or will the research community also creates an inclusive
result in stigmatizing or helping its and robust peer-review process that
Igniting Diversity S55
welcomes diverse topics, methods and more diverse (Ortman & Guarneri, 2009;
methodologies. Passel & Cohn, 2008; Pew Research Cen-
10. Practice a scholarship of dialogue. ter, 2013; Vincent & Velkoff, 2010). As
A research subject (i.e., participant) modern society strives to keep up with
shouldn’t just become an object. Ques- technological advances and innovations, it
tions and research conditions should is of equal importance, and perhaps, im-
allow them to provide authentic re- perative, that LIS programs also consider
sponses, and to the extent possible, the inclusion of cultural communication
allow them to be at the table to pres- competencies into their curricula.
ent their perspectives on their research No other function of library service re-
experiences and the topic. A scholar- quires more attention to advance diverse
ship of dialogue (Chu, 2005) calls for interpersonal communication competen-
research participants to have a voice cies than those that depend on direct con-
and be credited for the research by in- tact with people, whether face-to-face, by
volving them at conferences and other phone, or online. Library professionals
forms of dissemination. providing information (reference), out-
reach, and other customer-related services
In summary, because meaning and will invariably engage in communication
learning are contextual, it is important to interactions with the public, and unless
recognize biases (positive or negative) in they are trained in intercultural communi-
the process of any multicultural research cation competencies, they may, inadver-
or academic endeavor. As Matsuda notes tently create barriers and hinder the out-
“. . . where we stand shapes what we see, come of their service.
what we believe, and what privileges and Let’s take a closer look. Communica-
subordinations we experience” (1996, p. tion is the process of creating or sharing
xi). Through the conscious act of recogniz- meaning through the use of verbal and
ing one’s prejudice, research has a chance nonverbal behaviors (Verderber & Ver-
of becoming less biased and providing an- derber, 2005), but there are also cultural
swers that approximate reality. Through factors that affect how people from di-
the conscious act of stating one’s position- verse groups communicate, perceive, and
ality, even research that is biased would deduce meaning from communication in-
be less so, because both the researcher and teractions.
the consumer/reader are informed/aware When people interact with others (com-
of what is influencing the research. municate), the intention is to transmit a
message, and, in doing so, the sender tends
Cultural Communication to assume that the message is received and
Competencies to Bridge Barriers translated by the intended target person or
in Communication Interactions— group according to the initial intention or
Howard Rodriguez-Mori purpose of the sender. Yet, as the reader
may note from the Shannon and Weaver’s
It does not take long to realize how much model of communication (Case, 2012),
society in the United States has changed the message is usually affected by factors
in just 20 years. Technology innovations that may or not be in control of the sender.
that are common in our daily lives and Cultural factors can, and often are some of
workplaces did not, for the most part, exist those affecting factors.
back then. In a global society, the demo- Communication is much more than just
graphical composition of many countries words. Communication is a multimod-
has also changed. One example of this is al process that uses the verbal medium
the United States, whose population is, (voice), voice intonation, facial expres-
and will progressively become, more and sions, and body language (Kress, 2010;
S56 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
Okun, 2002). At the receiving end, people tact, or provide the minimum service
will receive or capture the content of the possible to others that look (or are as-
message, but also the facial expressions, sumed to be) different.
body language, and the intonation of the • A marked change in attitude when
voice, and create a combined interpreta- interacting with people who are, (or
tion. For some, understanding the verbal are assumed to be) from diverse and
message is more than sufficient and will minority groups. Observed change in
pay little attention to other communica- attitude may include friendly, “service
tion factors. Yet, some people tend also with a smile” to mainstream customers
to notice if the message carries more than that without reason changes to a frown
a verbal message and will recognize, and and a stark attitude when servicing per-
interpret other messages. Examples of this ceived minority customers. Selective
include, among others, perceptions and use courtesies and small talk (and lack
hints of sarcasm, happiness, sadness, and thereof) are also noticed.
anger. There are people in some cultures • Preferential or full service treatment to
that are more prone to perceive these hints mainstream customers, while limiting
and interpret them according to their cul- options to others. This includes offering
tural lens. Unfortunately for our profes- alternatives or options for services to
sion, many public service librarians are some customers, while failing to offer
not yet aware of this multimodal aspect of similar alternatives to people perceived
communication and its potential to effects as minorities.
on customer service.
How much or how little people capture Perceived differences in service, un-
from the multimodality of communica- fortunately, tend to be interpreted as the
tion depends on their cultural background. organization’s culture rather than the em-
According to Edward T. Hall (1976), cul- ployee’s attitude, and this has lasting neg-
tural groups vary in how much, or little, ative consequences. When people from
they use elements of the context of com- high-context cultures perceive disdain or
munication to draw their understanding, a lack of desire to provide good and equi-
or perceived meaning of the messages table service, they tend to look for alterna-
they receive. As such, some cultures will tives elsewhere to satisfy their information
draw meaning exclusively from the literal needs, and some may choose not to return
meaning of words (low context). On the to the library for some time, or forever.
other hand, high context cultures will draw In communication interactions, diverse
meaning from a combination of elements, groups use and interpret context in differ-
including the verbal message plus their ent ways. As a result, there are best prac-
interpretation of non-verbal (conscious or tice variants that work in some cultures
unconscious) messages. but not in all. Examples of how people
Further, diverse groups will infer mean- from different cultural backgrounds and
ing from perceptions of preferential treat- nationalities react to differences in ser-
ment to others, or deferential treatment re- vice abound in the professional business,
ceived when there are no obvious reasons communication, sociology, and market-
for such treatment. Observed examples of ing literature. For example, people from
preferential/deferential treatment include, some cultures will be put off or highly
but are not limited to: upset if they are not addressed with their
expected level of professional demeanor.
• Customer service/front desk staff who Others, however, will not mind at all if
try their very best to make and establish they are treated casually (Harris & Moran,
contact with mainstream population 2007). Some groups prefer to “get straight
customers, yet avoiding making con- to business” without much consideration