ERIC ED474289: Cross-Cultural HRD. Symposium.

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DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 474 289
CE 084 678
Cross-Cultural HRD. Symposium.
TITLE
No-36
REPORT NO
2002-00-00
PUB DATE
25p.; In: Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD)
NOTE
Conference Proceedings (Honolulu, Hawaii, February 27-March
3, 2002); see CE 084 635.
Reports
Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)
Research (143)
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Adult Development; Adult Learning; *Cherokee (Tribe);
DESCRIPTORS
Comparative Analysis; Cooperative Planning; *Cost
Effectiveness; Course Selection (Students); Cultural
Background; *Cultural Relevance; Departments; Developed
Nations; Developing Nations; Economics of Education;
Educational Needs; *Educational Opportunities; Educational
Planning; *Educational Trends; Employer Attitudes;
Experiential Learning; Fees; Foreign Countries; Global
Approach; Human Capital; Human Resources; Independent Study;
Informal Education; *Labor Force Development; Labor Market;
Models; On the Job Training; Postsecondary Education; Program
Design; Program Evaluation; Public Policy; Social
Integration; Socioeconomic Influences; Staff Development;
Supply and Demand; Technical Education; Training
*Kenya; *Netherlands; Networking
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
The first of three papers from this symposium on cross-
cultural human resource development (HRD), "Determinants of Supply of
Technical Training Opportunities for Human Capital Development in
Kenya" (Moses Waithanji Ngware, Fredrick Muyia Nafukho) reports findings from
interviews of technical training institute department heads in Kenya who
identified these factors about the supply of training places: number of
courses offered; amount of fees paid; and departmental capacity.
(The supply
of training opportunities is a major HRD issue in developing countries.) The
second paper,. "Dancing with the Cherokee: Reflections on Learning from the
2001 AHRD Globalization Pre-Conference" (Theresa J. Kraemer, Darren C.
Short), reports the design of and participants' accounts from a visit to the
Cherokee Nation, including new insights on the importance of identity and
culture and the role of HRD in educating organizations about cultural ethics
and globalization. The final paper, "Training Expenditures and Practices:
Findings from the Netherlands" (Jan N. Streumer, A.A.M.
(Ida) Wognum, C.H.E.
(Kitty) Kwakman, Beatrice I.J.M. van der Heijden, Simone van Zolingen),
reports findings from a survey of Dutch HRD managers who answered questions
about training activities engaged in by employees in the work place.
(Informal learning-while-working activities and short length formal training
sessions are most popular; it is difficult to assign an exact cost figure to
training; large companies spend more on training than do small companies; and
the training function is moving upwards in organization hierarchies.) All
three papers contain bibliographies.
(AJ)
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1
fiLl
2002 AHRD Conference
Cross-Cultural HRD
Symposium 36
Honolulu, Hawaii
February 27 - March 3, 2002
BEST COPY AVAILA
2
Opportunities for Human Capital
Determinants of Supply of Technical Training
Development in Kenya
Moses Waithanji Ngware
Egerton University, Kenya
Fredrick Muyia Nafukho
University of Arkansas
human capital acts as an impetus for socio-economic
In slow growing economies, an increased supply of
job creators as opposed to school leavers who
development. Graduates of technical skills in Kenya act as
that explains the
this paper, the authors develop a supply function model
are inclined to job seeking. In
Technical Education Programs in Kenya.
factors influencing the supply of training opportunities in
Capital
Keywords:Technical Training, Supply of Training, Human
developing
in socio-economic development of a nation. In
Resources used on education and training are investments
expenditures on education and training are very high
countries, studies have shown that rates of return to
and informal sector workers with primary education
(Psacharopoulos, 1995). In Kenya, studies show that farmers
1991; Thias & Carnoy,
their counterparts without this basic education (Ndegwa,
are one-third mom productive than
of any
consideration to the success of an industrialization process
1972). Investment in human capital is a critical
and skilled technicians at both shop floor and supervisory
nation. It assures the supply of well-trained managers
training institutes and employers in order to bridge the gap
levels. This calls for a collaborative effort between the
that 59
and demand for technical skills. In Kenya, it is estimated
between supply of training places, graduate outputs
The government of Kenya
20 years of age (Republic of Kenya, 1996, 1997).
per cent of the population is below
supply in
that, there existed a mismatch between demand and
through the sessional paper No. 2 of 1996 observed
labor
vocational and technical skills that are required in the
the labor market. Thus, majority of the youth lack
that may not be required by employers.
market. While the training institutions are offering courses
Problem Statement and Purpose
requires
and supply of technical training opportunities in Kenya
To remove the mismatch between demand for
be
for school leavers and workers is an area that needs to
economic analysis. Training potential and opportunities
available
education does not have data on the number of places
explored using economic principles. The ministry of
This
demand for and supply of technical training opportunities.
for technical training and the factors determining
work. Thus, in the absence of empirical data relating to
reduces planning for development of human capital to guess
opportunities, one is not able to determine whether new
factors influencing the supply of technical training
be expanded.
institutions should be build or the existing ones, should
determining the
supply function model that explains the factors
The main purpose of this study was develop a
major
Technology (IT) in Kenya. The study sought to answer one
supply of training opportunities in Institutes of
places in Institutes of Technology studied?
question: What factors affect the supply of training
Study Hypotheses
It was hypothesized that:
offered
between the diversity of the technical courses
There existed a positive and significant relationship
I.
opportunities.
by the departments and the supply of training
between the cost of the training programs and the
There existed a positive and significant relationship
2.
supply of training opportunities
of
between departmental capacity and the supply
There existed a positive and significant relationship
3.
training opportunities.
Waithanji Ngware
Copyright © 2002 Fredrick Muyia Nafukho and Moses
36-1
3
Theoretical Framework
in diverse ways by
individuals are motivated to spend on themselves
The theory of human capital postulates that
That
for the sake of future pecuniary and non- pecuniary returns.
purchasing education, not for its own sake, but
(Shultz 1961, 1962).
individuals and governments spend on education
both direct and indirect cost is incurred when
education and training are
made by individuals and governments on
From the theory of human capital, expenditures
and training
Becker (1993) shows that investing in education
investments that will provide returns in the future.
capital formation. In
education and training are processes of human
increases individuals' lifetime earnings. Thus,
of human life such as
that all activities aimed at improving quality
fact, Shultz (1962) and Mincer (1962) note
of human capital.
spending on health, job search, and migration are part
influences
form of human capital. As in education, training
Training, which is the main focus of this paper, is a
usually the end of a
(1962, p. 50) observes: " the training process is
the variation in wages and earnings. Mincer
often prolonged process of
and the beginning of a more specialized and
more general and preparatory stage,
by the training
labor force." The cost of training incurred
acquisition of occupational skill, after entry into the
(Aliaga, 2001).
foregone earnings are considered investments
institutions and the trainees including expenditures on
Factors Influencing Supply of Training
why training
supply of training can be derived from the reasons
The literature show that the main factors influencing
training institutions
firm, inputs are utilized to obtain output. Thus,
is provided. From the economic theory of the
equipment. All these
facilities, paying the trainers, time and purchase of
incur costs such as building of learning
institutions, as firms
From the Input-Output model, training
include the inputs. The output includes, the graduates.
the desired output.
must optimally combine inputs to obtain
training is the type
general training and specific training. General
Becker (1993) identified two types of training,
learned can be used in
those providing it. The knowledge and skills
of training that is useful in many firms besides
transferable from
well as in others. Thus, knowledge and skills are
the firm providing or sponsoring the training as
incur the direct and
& Kang'ethe in the Press). Firms that
organization to organization (Aliaga, 2001; Nafukho
firms obtaining the
from the investment but also take the risk of other
indirect cost of general training obtain returns
for their
jobs. Employees who take general training in most cases pay
returns when the trained employees change
determine the supply of training.
of training is an important factor that may
own cost of training. Hence, cost
Most firms
negotiation capability within the existing labor market.
General training provides workers with increased
such services.
general type of training since it is easy to outsource
are unwilling to directly sponsor
productivity of
defined as training " that has no effect on the
Unlike general training, specific training has been
learned will only be
(Becker, 1993, p. 40). The skills and knowledge
trainees that would be useful in other firms"
Kenya is the kind of
A good example of specific training in
useful to the organization sponsoring the training.
specific training with
their own employees in Kenya, they focus on
training provided by banks. When banks train
and knowledge
productivity from the employees since the skills
the objective of obtaining increased marginal
that the purpose of
for training. Flamholtz & Lacey (1981) observe
learned are only applicable to the banks paying
the employee will
marginal productivity. That is both the firm and
specific training is to increase the employee's
employee will benefit
since the overall performance improves. The
benefit from increased marginal productivity
line with the theory of
is pecked on good performance. This is in
especially in the private sector where payment
training.
additional earnings as a result of investment in
human capital since the trained employee receives
Technology in Kenya.
influence the supply of training in Institutes of
Both general and specific types of training
the case of general
for direct and indirect cost of specific training. In
Employers sponsor their employees by paying
direct cost of their training.
training, many high school students meet the
Supply of Training
Departmental Capacity, Program Diversity and
private costs were the major
meeting academic entry requirements and
World Bank (1993) study concluded that
had to
According to this study, major determinants of access
determinants of access to technical training institutions.
further established that
departmental and institutional capacity. The study
do with admission policies based on
Under-representation of
examinations, they were under-represented.
despite girls scoring high grades in pre-training
These studies found out
institutions was also highlighted (Burge, 1990).
girls in technical and vocational training
while males dominated
related courses and teacher-training programs
that females enrolled in business education
and household duties
and technology education. Gender stereotyping
agriculture, auto mechanics, building trades
perceived as male domain. Access by
barriers to female participation in courses
were established to be the major
(80.3%) compared to
Urban schools had high average entrance grades
location was found to favor urban dwellers.
then students
based on minimum academic entry requirements,
rural schools (27.6%). If admission criteria were
This situation was
technical and vocational training institutions.
from rural areas will be under-represented in
36-1
4
BEST COPY AVAIIABLIE
in urban
training institutions in Kenya were concentrated
reinforced by the fact that most technical and vocational
Kenya is also expounded by
of girls in vocational and technical education in
areas. The issue of under-representation
Nafukho (1994).
in technical
All held in Kenya, found the participation rates
The UNESCO Conference on Education For
and Training
conference also heard that out of School Education
institutions to be low (UNESCO, 1992). The
school leavers;
partly explained by ignorance on the part of
Programs were male dominated. Such a scenario was
guidance
syndrome; and cultural inhibitions and lack of career
inadequate facilities; academic qualification
regardless of
for training skills for all members of our society
(UNESCO, 1992). The literature points to the need
opportunities
and the private sector should provide training
their gender. For this to happen, the Kenya Government
gender, region and
Such facilities should be supplied equitably by
in terms of more access to training facilities.
of training,
in Kenya have to be addressed. While the costs
socio-economic status if regional inequalities existing
review, no
the supply of training as shown by the literature
departmental capacity and program diversity influence
This study therefore aimed at filling this gap.
study shows the extent of the influence in Kenya.
Methodology
the study since the
study. The research design was found relevant to
An ex post facto design was employed in the
conducted. This
institutions. Thus, an after-the-fact analysis was
researchers used existing data in the technical
relationships
enabled the researchers to establish subsequent
design was found appropriate for the study as it
the target
The 17 Institutes of Technology in Kenya comprised
between the dependent and independent variables.
arrived at after
institutions was selected. The sample size was
population of the study. A sample size of seven (7)
considerations
of how the population was distributed. Other
considering institutional size (enrolment) as an indicator
frame,
included cost of study, heterogeneity of the sample
made in order to achieve sample design efficiency
used in
acceptable sampling error set at 5%. Stratified sampling was
number of trait to be measured and size of the
deviation from
stratified into three strata based on institutional size
the first stage of sampling ITs. Institutions were
Sample allocation from
sampling was used to select ITs from the strata.
the population mean (Mr). Simple random
Anderson, 1983).
for optimal sample allocation (Rossi, Wright, &
the strata was computed from Neyman's formula
(167), Kaimosi
the time of data collection included Mathenge
The institutions selected and their enrolment as per
and
Technology- RIAT (541), Kiambu (558), Murang'a (693)
(205), Kimathi (401), Ramogi Institute of Advanced
(1204).
Rift Valley Institute of Science and Technology-RVIST
Description of the Instrument for Data Collection
of the
developed and administered to 37 Heads of Departments
In order to collect data, a questionnaire was
The
given enough time to respond to the questionnaire.
Institutes studied. All the departmental Heads were
of students
variables such as number of instructors, number
instrument sought information on the independent
examinations,
fees required per year, mean score in national
enrolled in the institute by department and program,
the dependent
offered. Also sought was the information on
composition of the students, course and programs
variable number of student places in each department.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
field of vocational and
the instrument was presented to experts in the
Prior to embarking on actual data collection,
comments
Egerton and Moi Universities, Kenya for refining. The
technical education in the Faculty of Education at
Four Departments in similar institutes
study was conducted.
provided were incorporated. In addition, a pilot
instrument. Care
feedback from the pilot to further refine the
completed the questionnaire. The researchers used the
study.
Department Heads did not participate in the final
was taken to ensure that the four
interviewed.
principals, 7 registrars, and 7 finance officers were
Besides the 37 Heads of departments, 7
collection. Data were
supply of training were employed in data
Interview schedules on the factors influencing
reliability of the
Cronbach's alpha (a) was used to estimate the
collected from both primary and secondary sources.
indicated that
had a reliability coefficient of 0.9924. This
questionnaire items (Rossi et a/., 1983). The instrument
variables studied.
the instrument was consistent in measuring the
Findings
related to
that availability of technical training places was not
The hypothesis under investigation postulated
between variables in
training. Explanatory models for the relationship
shortage of trainers and inputs required for
opportunity (SsTep) was the
Availability of Technical education training
this hypothesis have been presented.
36-1
undertake
first-year trainees that qualified and were admitted to
dependent variable (Y), measured by the number of
observation (which was independent
department in an institution provided one single
a three-year TEP course. Each
explanatory variables used in the model.
of any other observation). Table 1 defines
Supply of Technical Training Opportunities
Table 1. Explanatory Variables Used in Modeling
Definition
Variable
Pupil-teacher ratio
PRT (X1)
department
Number of three-year programs (course) offered in a
NuCos (X2)
number of students' places in
Real departmental capacity. This was measured by the
RdpCap (X3)
each department
Proportion of real departmental capacity to total enrolment
PpRDpCap (X4)
for a three-year course
Actual number of trainees enrolled in each department
AdpCap (X5)
Training fees per year in each institution
SchFe (X6)
examination performance for
Quality of graduates. A mean score based on national
GQLY (X7)
each department measured this variable
Quantity of graduates from a department
GQTTY (X8)
candidates in a department
The proportion of graduates to the total number of
PpGQTTY (X9)
that
variable Y and the independent variables X showed
The correlation coefficients (r) between the dependent
relationships
and GQTTY (X8) had positive and significant
NuCos (X2), RdpCap (X3), AdpCap (X5), SchFe (X6)
positive and
level. Variable PpRDpCap (X4) also had a
with the dependent variable (Y) at 0.01 significance
GQLY (X7)
0.05 significance level. Variables PRT (X1),
significant relationship with the independent variable at
relationship with the independent variable.
and PpGQTTY (X9) had a weak and insignificant
variable (Y) and the
explain the relationship between the dependent
A multiple linear model was estimated to
.
model, it was found necessary to address the assumptions
independent variables. In order to come up with the best
variables that
argued that correlations among pairs of independent
that go with linear modeling. Rossi et al., (1983)
deal
multicollinearity. However this is not always a good strategy to
exceed plus or minus 0.8 can be used to detect
relied on
variable bias. To deal with the problem, the study
with multicollinearity as it could introduce omitted
from
independent variables that were highly related to others
SPSS, which could check internally and exclude the
variable and
linear relationship existed between the dependent
the regression analyses. To ascertain that a
cluster
Explanatory variables whose points did not seem to
explanatory variables, scatter diagrams were plotted.
of residuals
done, were dropped from the model. Scatter plots
around a straight line even after transformations were
for the variable of the final
residuals versus the predicted values showed no pattern
versus independent variables and
F-to-remove
probability of F-to-enter less or equal to 0.05 and
model, thus confirming homoscedasticity. Using a
in Table 2. Only three
analysis methods estimated three models as shown
greater or equal to 0.1, regression
F -to-remove.
variables met the specified criteria of F-to-enter and
36-1
of Supply for a Training Opportunity in Technical
Table 2. Stepwise Regression Analysis for Determinants
Education Programs
Sig *
t-ratio
Std
Coef (B)
Model
0.604
0.524
2.098
1.100
Constant
0.000
20.312
0.018
0.366
Xs
F = 412.585
Df = (1, 31)
Prob. (>F) = 0.00
R2 = 0.930
Adj. R2 = 0.928
0.876
-0.157
2.080
-0.327
Constant
0.000
11.064
0.028
0.315
X5
0.034
2.215
1.220
2.702
X2
F = 234.748
Df = (2, 30)
Prob. (>F) = 0.00
R2 = 0.940
Adj. R2 = 0.936
0.049
-2.054
6.735
-13.832
Constant
0.000
10.644
0.028
0.299
X5
0.025
2.372
1.156
2.742
X2
0.045
2.097
0.000
0.00054
X6
F = 175.685
Df = (3, 29)
Prob. (>F) = 0.00
R2 = 0.948
Adj. R2 = 0.942
level
Significant for a two-tailed t-test at 5% significance
(Eq. 1)
1. SsTep = 1.100 + 0.366 ADpCap
(0.524) (20.312)
(Eq. 2)
NuCos
2. SsTep = -0.327 + 0.315 ADpCap + 2.702
(-0.157) (11.064) (2.215)
NuCos + 0.00054 SchFe
3. SsTep = -13.832 + 0.299 ADpCap + 2.742
(Eq. 3)
(-2.054) (10.644) (2.372) (2.097)
in the supply of
94.2% respectively of the total variance observed
Equations 1, 2 and 3 explained 92.8%, 93.6% and
model that could be adopted to explain the
= 94.2%) offers the best
Equation 3 (adj
training opportunities.
level. This indicates that
for each equation are significant at 0.01
variation. The F-values from ANOVA undertaken
who qualify and could be
From Equation 3, the number of applicants
regression coefficients are different from zero.
shows that the estimated
department can be predicted. This equation
admitted to undertake a three-year course in a
0.299 times the
the beginning of an academic year is equal to
supply of training opportunities in TEP departments at
department, plus 0.00054
times the number of programs offered by the
actual departmental capacity, plus 2.742
of training resources
important in planning the supply and allocation
times school fees, minus 13.832. This model is
and therefore could forecast with increased
Equation 3 has a high predictive value (94.2%)
within an institution.
could be due to measurement error or
of total variance unexplained by Equation 3
accuracy. The remaining S8%
supply of
applied to the seven institutions in the study,
variables not included in the model. If Equation 3 was
of TEP in the
1,007 in one intake. Table 3 shows the supply
training places in those institutions would be
by model 3.
seven institutions as estimated
36-1
7
Table 3. Predicted Supply of TEP Training Places
of SsTep
No.
SchFe
Nucos
AdpCap
Institution
Technical
(X2)
(X5)
departments
(X6)
88
21,860
3
49
1. Mathenge
1
32
20,428
2
95
2. Kaimosi
1
42
24,000
3
1.25
37.33
3. Kimathi
150
6
26,400
1.83
4. RIAT
65
201
3
35,203
3.67
5. Kiambu
173
227
30,957
6
2.17
96.5
6. Murang'a
267
4
29,660
4.25
176.5
7. RVIST
1007
Total
each institution.
Notes: Entries in columns 2, 3, and 4 are averages for
in an institution that were used to multiply the results
Entries in column 5 are the number of technical departments
in order to get SsTep in each institution.
of equation 3 (and thus remove the effect of averaging)
Conclusion
explain
of fees paid and departmental capacity were found to
Number of courses offered by an institution, amount
students'
number of courses offered by an institution increased
the supply of training places. Increasing the
Also, a high
and hence the supply of training places went up.
opportunity of being admitted to such an institution
if
result to decreased school fees, as would be the case
admission as a result of increased supply does not necessarily
regression coefficient for school fees indicates the
economies of large scale were to be realized. The positive
economies of
institutions operate inefficiently and have failed to utilize
contrary. This is likely to happen because
departmental
the most likely to charge high fees. In case of
large scale. Institutions with high enrolments are
capacity of
observed. This means that expanding the holding
capacity, a positive regression coefficient was
supply of
students. Equation 3 can be used to forecast effective
departments will allow the institutions to admit more
predict
other things constant, by the year 2010, a department may
training places in a department in future. Holding
fees of Kshs
admitted given a capacity of 100, three courses and school
the number of new trainees who could be
(0.00054 x
SsTep = 13.832 + (0.299 x 100) + (2.742 x 3) +
25,000 per annum. This can be shown as follows:
37 first-year students, other things being the same.
25,000)=36.894. Such a department would prepare for
Implications to Human Resource Development Field
function model of
has been used in this study to develop a supply
The economic theory of demand and supply
of such
by Institutes of Technical Training. The capacity
factors determining supply of training opportunities
Since
issue in the development of human capital in Kenya.
institutions to offer training opportunities is a major
be a major
it is imperative that the supply of training places
human capital is a key factor in wealth creation,
plans.
and Labor draw their short, medium and long-term
consideration wherever the ministries of Education
physical resources both quantitatively and qualitatively to
Technical Training Institutions need to expand their
this study
demand and supply and the theory of the firm used in
develop human capital. The economic theories of
issue in
supply of training of opportunities may not be a major
have great significance to HRD descipline. While
in studying
is an issue in Kenya. HRD Researchers interested
developed economies such as that of UK, and US, it
36-1
useful.
in Africa should fnd the results of this study
provision of training and human capital development
human resource
be of great interest to training institutions and
Specifically, the model developed in this study should
in developing countries.
experts who are actively engaged in training
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from the 2001 AIIRD Globalization
Dancing with the Cherokee: Reflections on Learning
Pre-Conference
Theresa J. Kraemer
University of South Florida
Darren C. Short
Perspectives, UK
from, the visit to the Cherokee Nation
This paper reports the design of and participants' accounts
The impact of globalization on national and
undertaken in the 2001 AHRD Globalization Pre-conference.
HRD
With major corporations as significant players in globalization,
sub-national cultures can be great.
influence the globalization process. The 2001
professionals have key supporting roles and the potential to
peoples can take to preserve their
pre-conference acted as a case study in exploring the impact, the steps
identity, and the implications for HRD.
Keywords: Globalization, Cherokee, HRD Practitioners
and technologies to a degree never
Globalization...is the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states
and nation-states to reach around the
witnessed beforein a way that is enabling individuals, corporations
and in a way that is enabling the world to reach
world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before,
farther, faster, deeper, cheaper than ever before
into individuals, corporations and nation-states
(Friedman, 2000, p. 9).
the
of HRD (AHRD) Globalization Pre-conference, and
This paper reports the content from the 2001 Academy
previous three
It was the fourth annual pre-conference on the topic, the
reflections of those who participated.
implications for HRD. The 2001 pre-conference dealt
dealing with theories and research on globalization and
intention of generating more reflective practice in
instead with exploring the `experience' of globalization, with the
HRD practitioners and new strands of HRD research.
pre-conference attendees had an ideal opportunity to visit
With the AHRD conference based in Tulsa in 2001,
of the visit was to engage in dialogue with Cherokee
the Cherokee Nation in nearby Tahlequah. The broad purpose
their cultural identity in the face of pressures for cultural
leaders and community members on how they maintain
in that maintenance process. The goals were to:
change, and in particular to examine the role of education
impact on HRD, and the role of HRD
Increase participants' understanding of globalization, the
professionals.
globalization.
Encourage new ways of looking at, and thinking about,
contributor to the dialogue on the relationship between
Help positioning the pre-conference as a significant
HRD and globalization.
scholars committed to the exploration and enhancing
Support networking and facilitate a network of HRD
of globalization research.
Provide an innovative, participative, and fun experience.
Purpose and Structure
both
activities, organizers were encouraged to record and report
Because of the unique design of the pre-conference
claiming
gives that report. In presenting the paper, we are not
the design and accounts of the experience. This paper
others to reflect on the
sharing our experience in the hope that it encourages
to be building new theories, but to be
study of
learning designs can be incorporated into their
experiencing of globalization and how innovative
globalization and HRD more generally.
background of the Cherokee as global players as well as
The paper is structured to first describe a generalized
the
followed by a discussion of the results, and then
globalization, present the methods of data collection,
for further research.
implications for HRD. The final section describes the need
Copyright © 2002 Theresa J Kraemer and Darren C Short
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