ERIC ED454973: Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature.

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DOCUMENT RESUME
PS 029 599
ED 454 973
Davis, James Earl; Perkins, William Eric
AUTHOR
Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature.
TITLE
Pennsylvania Univ., Philadelphia. National Center on Fathers
INSTITUTION
and Families.
Annie E. Casey Foundation, Baltimore, MD.; Ford Foundation,
SPONS AGENCY
New York, NY.
NCOFF-LR-CP-96-01
REPORT NO
1996-01-00
PUB DATE
36p.; Second printing.
NOTE
National Center on Fathers and Families, University of
AVAILABLE FROM
Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, 3700 Walnut
Street, Box 58, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6216. Tel:
215-573-5500; Fax: [phone]; e-mail:
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Information Analyses (070)
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*Children; Divorce; Early Experience; Early Parenthood;
DESCRIPTORS
*Family Structure; Family Work Relationship; *Fathers;
Individual Differences; Literature Reviews; One Parent
Family; Parent Attitudes; *Parent Child Relationship; Parent
Participation; Sex Role
ABSTRACT
Noting that the role of fathers in caring for children has
received increased research attention over the last 20 years, this literature
review concerns the role of fathers in the physical and psychological
maintenance of children. The review is organized around three themes in the
(1) descriptions of care activities and variations
father care literature:
(2) father status in family
linked to family and child characteristics;
arrangements; and (3) diversity in father care experiences. The review notes
that, given the rise in dual-earner families, the availability of affordable
and quality childcare, and increased expectations of fathers, an overall
increase in father care activity is evident in this body of research. Yet,
fathers are likely to assume secondary positions in the care of children, and
this care tends to be less instrumental--primarily focusing on play and
recreation. Family arrangements, in general, determine the level of and
opportunity for fathers' care, and gender roles continue to circumscribe
men's potential for increased involvement in care. The review concludes by
identifying the limitations of current research and by examining plausible
policy and practice directions. (Contains 169 references.) (Author/KB)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
ce)
Fathers' Care:
A Review of the Literature
LR-CP-96-01
4.1
January 1996
(Second Printing)
by
James Earl Davis
The University of Delaware
and
William Eric Perkins
The University of Pennsylvania
Commissioned by the
National Center on
Fathers and Families
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
BEEN GRANTED BY
CENTER (ERIC)
)(This document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
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originating it.
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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
Points of view or opinions s ated in this
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
document do not necessari y represent
1
official OERI position or pol cy.
National Center on Fathers and Families
NATIONAL CENTER ON FATHERS AND FAMILIES
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
3700 WALNUT STREET, Box 58
PHILADELPHIA, PA 1 91 04 -621 6
AVAILABLE
BEST COPY
2
Fathers' Care:
A Review of the Literature
LR-CP-96-01
January 1996
(Second Printing)
by
James Earl Davis
The University of Delaware
and
William Eric Perkins
The University of Pennsylvania
Commissioned by the
National Center on
Fathers and Families
The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and
do not necessarily reflect the opinion of The University of
Delaware or the opinion of The University of Pennsylvania.
C
FF
National Center on Fathers and Families
NATIONAL CENTER ON FATHERS AND FAMILIES
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
3700 WALNUT STREET, Box 58
PHILADELPHIA, PA 19104-6216
TELEPHONE: [phone]
Fax: [phone]
HTTP: / /WWW.NCOFF.GSE.UPENN.EDU
E-MAIL: MAILBOX @ NCOFF.GSE.UPENN.EDU
HANDSNET: [email protected]
DIRECTOR: VIVIAN L. GADSDEN, PH.D.
National Center on Fathers and Families
Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature
by James Earl Davis and William Eric Perkins
©1996 National Center on Fathers and Families
Abstract
Research on Fathers' Care concerns the role of fathers in the physical and
psychological maintenance of children. This review is organized around three
themes in the father care literature: descriptions of care activities and varia-
tions linked to family and child characteristics; father status in family ar-
rangements; and diversity in father care experiences. Given the rise in dual-
earner families, the availability of affordable and quality childcare, and in-
creased expectations of fathers, an overall increase in father care activity is
evident in this body of research. Yet, fathers are likely to assume secondary
positions in the care of children and this care tends to be less instrumental
primarily focusing on play and recreation. Family arrangements, in gen-
eral, determine the level of and opportunity for fathers' care, and gender
roles continue to circumscribe men's potential for increased involvement in
care. The review concludes by identifying the limitations of current research
and by examining plausible policy and practice directions.
The National Center on Fathers and Families (NCOFF) is a policy research center that is
practice-focused and practice-derived. Based at the University of Pennsylvania, NCOFF's
mission is to improve the life chances of children and the efficacy of families by facilitating
the effective involvement of fathers in caring for, supporting, and advocating on behalf of
their children. Efforts are organized around three interdependent approaches: program de-
velopment, a policy research and policymakers engagement component, and dissemina-
tion activities. NCOFF's research plan is developed around seven "Core Learnings," dis-
tilled from the experiences of programs and agencies serving fathers, mothers, and children
around the country.
Core funding for NCOFF is provided by the Annie E. Casey Foundation. Additional support
is provided by the Ford Foundation.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
James Earl Davis is Associate Professor of Education at the
University of Delaware.
William Eric Perkins is Faculty Fellow at the W.E.B. DuBois
College House at the University of Pennsylvania.
Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature
by James Earl Davis
and
William Eric Perkins
White
and
middle-class, well-educated,
Rpesearch on fathers' care examines the
role of fathers in the physical and
(Pruett, 1987).
sychological maintenance of children
Most of the research on fathers'
care
and the relationships that develop between
highly-educated,
on
focus
continues
to
fathers and their children throughout the life-
middle-class, White,
families.
The
intact
course. Over the past 20 years, the role of
experiences of fathers in the working class,
fathers in caring for children has received
among the working poor, and the underclass
increased attention in the research literature.
are ignored. In addition, single fathers and
The confluence
of
factors--e.g.,
several
other unmarried or nonresident fathers are
nor are
growth in the number of two-earner families,
scarcely found in
literature,
the
the women's movement, and the availability
ethnic
and
different
racial
fathers
from
of affordable and quality childcarehave
groups. Thus, the current research literature
resulted in shifts in the expectations of fathers
represents an unfinished portrait of fathers'
and questions about the nature of fatherhood
caring.
and fathering, particularly the development of
In research studies from the 1970s to the
of
provision
nurturance
and
attachment
present, issues around fathers' caring have
(Benokraitis, 1985; Lamb, 1995).
referred to a range of father-related activities
Much of the literature on fathers' caring
in the daily care of children, families, and
continues to be shaped by developmental
households. Most studies on fathers' care
sociology,
psychology,
and
family
and
focus on activities
associated
traditionally
gender studies. It explores father participation
with caregiving: feeding, dressing, changing
without much attention to the process(es)
playing,
and
reading,
bathing,
diapers,
through which men come to participate in
helping with school work (Starrels,
1994;
their children's lives and the nature of this
Demo, 1992; Marsiglio, 1991). The care of
Baruch
and
(Barnett
participation
1987;
children is described as a gendered activity in
Palkovitz, 1984). While mothers still provide
which caregiving expectations of mothers and
of
more childcare
and
(Blair
fathers
the
than
Most
substantially.
vary
fathers
fathers'
research includes a substantial
discussion
participation
1991),
Lichter,
in
childcare activities has increased significantly
and
participation
financial
fathers'
about
contributions to the material well-being of
within recent years (Coltrane, 1996; Douthitt,
1988; Glennon, 1995; Levine and Pitt, 1996;
their children, thus placing other traditional
However,
because
father
forms of caring (e.g. feeding and bathing) in
Pleck,
1987).
involvement in childcare is not a traditional
Garasky,
and
(Meyer
roles
subordinate
arrangement, families in which fathers are
1993).
amount of
substantial
for
responsible
a
review
literature
this
Organizing
childcare may be considered "nontraditional"
presented several challenges, attributable in
or "alternative." These families are typically
part to the newness of the field and scarcity
1
6
2
of research on fathers'
care, and to
recommendations regarding future research
the
disproportionate focus of the literature on
and policy studies in this area.
fathers' financial contribution as an indicator
of caring.
Aspects of fathers'
financial
FATHERS' CARE ACTIVITIES
contributions
not
considered
are
in
this
Child Care and Support during
review on traditional forms of caring. We
Children's Early Development
begin by examining the literature on father
Despite
recent
increases
fathers'
in
activities and describe some of the
care
involvement in the care of children, there is
variations in care that are linked to family and
still little known about what fathers actually
characteristics.
child
This
research
also
do and about variations and antecedents to
includes studies centering on factors
that
fathers' care (Pleck, 1987; Douthitt, 1988;
increase or decrease the likelihood of fathers
Marsiglio, 1995). Care not only includes
being involved in the care of their children.
physical attention such as feeding and bathing
An important core of research seeks to
but also encompasses other child interactions
understand
how
men
conceptualize
such as reading and playing. Most research
fatherhood, how their ideals translate into
suggests that fathers' participation in the care
fathering behavior that demonstrates caring,
of their children changes as children develop
and whether and how father care transforms
from infancy
with men
to
adolescence,
men and affects the lives of their children
providing
very
compared
care
little
to
(Bozett, 1985; Pleck, Lamb, Levine, 1986;
mothers during a child's infancy (Bozett,
Nute, 1987). All of these studies of fathers'
1985; Katsh, 1981; Marsiglio, 1991; Radin
caring and
involvement can be
broadly
and Goldsmith, 1985). Fathers tend to be
classified into three types:
(1)
descriptive
most active with their school-age children and
of
accounts
father
involvement,
(2)
engaged
especially
activities
are
that
in
comparisons of fathers' caregiving in various
revolve around play (Lamb, 1996; Hewlett,
family arrangements, and (3) research aimed
1992; Salt, 1991). Fathers spend less time
at assessing variations in attitudes toward and
engaged in feeding and related caregiving
levels of care and participation.
than mothers (Cordell, Parke, and Swain,
Second, we focus on fathers' status in
1980; Harris and Morgan, 1991). However,
families
with
attention given
four
to
it does not necessarily follow that lower
predominate father-child arrangements:
(1)
levels of participation in early caregiving
married or cohabiting fathers in the same
activities are absolute indicators of fathers'
household with their children, (2) separated
competence in childcare. To the contrary,
or divorced fathers living apart from their
fathers are often equally able to interpret a
children, (3) single fathers who are primary
child's behavior and respond appropriately to
childcare providers, and (4) young unwed
needs (Jones, 1985; Shuster, 1994). While
fathers, including adolescents who usually do
they are potentially capable of providing child
live with the mother and child(ren).
not
care, fathers actually use their skills less
Lastly, we report findings on the diversity of
often.
fathers'
experiences
caregivers
as
by
Several
studies
examine
infant and
presenting the scarce research on African
preschool childcare (Baruch and Barnett,
American, Puerto Rican, and gay fathers.
Cordell, Parke and Swain,
1981;
1980;
The review concludes with a commentary on
Feldman, Nash, and Aschenbrenner, 1983;
critical issues and problems in interpreting the
1985; Katsh, 1981; Lamb,
Jones,
1975;
fathers'
on
literature
and
other
care
Lamb, Frodi, Hwang, and Frodi,
1982;
Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature
3
identities. The author concludes that there are
Manion, 1977; McKee, 1982; Perucci, Potter
and Rhoads, 1978; Radin, 1982; and Salt,
not biologically-determined sex differences in
1991). Conversely, the literature on father-
the potential for parenting behavior, but some
probably
predispositions
child relations with adolescents is sparse due
are
biological
focus on
present. However, given the potential for the
research
fathers'
primarily
to
diversity of parental roles and the use of
involvement with infants and
toddlers
technology, the socialization of boys and
(Demo, 1992; Rothbaum, Rosen, Pott and
upon
these
dependent
Beatty, 1995). Yogman (1982) offers a major
not
girls
are
contribution to the literature on father-infant
differences.
relationships by using early video technology
Manion's (1977) research provides data
of
expressive
exchanges
study
married couples
to
collected from forty-five
communication that underlie the developing
who had been admitted to maternity in a
relationship between a father and child. This
private hospital in a small midwestern city.
study of six newborn infants
at Boston
two
from
drawn
were
data
The
Children's
Hospital
involved
videotaped
questionnaires administered to both mother
interactions of these infants with mothers,
and father, one prior to the birth of the child
fathers, strangers.
session
and
Each
and the second six weeks later. Most of the
consisted of seven minutes of recording: two-
men had very little experience with childcare
minute periods of play followed by 30
in general or caring for infants. The majority
seconds of the infant alone. The infants
of fathers actively participated in the delivery
demonstrated a series of striking behaviors
Responses
of
children.
the
to
their
with mothers and fathers.
For example,
questionnaire showed that six weeks after
infants differentiated between their mothers
birth, all of the fathers participated in one or
and fathers and maintained longer periods of
more of the following activities: rocking and
time with their fathers compared to mothers.
walking, feeding, diapering, and bathing.
In summarizing the conclusions from this
Manion also found that the complexity of a
particular study, Yogman points out
that
childcare task affected the father's feeling of
investment may
increased
parental
male
competence such that basic tasks like bathing
represent a physiological adaptation of men,
or diapering were done infrequently.
In
and he calls for additional research into areas
addition, fathers who reported that their own
male hormonal changes
during
parents had been nurturing had high infant
the
like
prenatal period.
care participation scores. This study confirms
studies have suggested:
what other
past
In a critical review of the literature on
parental relationships shape current parental
relationships,
Lamb
and
father-child
behaviors and choices (Cowan and Cowan,
Goldberg (1982) conclude that very
little
1987; Lamb and Goldberg, 1982). Radin
observational research had been conducted on
(1982) found that mothers who perceived
the father-child relationship. They note that
their fathers as having had less involvement
there have been very few studies of father-
of
fathers
that
other
than
childcare
infant interactions in the home setting and that
in
generation have husbands who are heavily
observations of father-infant interaction in the
involved.
home is crucial in identifying successful and
among
behaviors
In a study of 169 first-time parents in a
unsuccessful
parental
review
highlights
large northeastern city, Katsh (1981) found
fathers. The
also
assumptions fathers hold about traditional
that fathers engaged in minimal caregiving,
paternal roles that serve to socialize children,
months
three
first
in the
particularly
roles
gender
boys,
and
into
especially
following birth. Katsh used a typical series of
Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature
4
of
indices
routine
tasks
feeding,
Ferketich and Mercer, 1995).
like
diapering, bathing, and attending the child at
In one of the early comparative studies of
night to show that mothers dominate infant
fathers' interaction with their four-year-old
care. In another study of fathers' views on
sons, Radin (1972) studied 21 lower-income
infancy and fatherhood (Cordell, Parke, and
and 21
middle-income White
fathers
to
Sawin, 1980) a majority of the twenty-six
determine if there is a relationship between
fathers of three month-old infants had been
child's
and
nurturance
intellectual
the
involved
childbirth
education
in
classes.
Radin concluded
development.
"the
that
Among the most significant findings were
masculine sex role definition in a lower-class
that all of the men thought they should be
culture may preclude sedentary, intellectual
involved in routine infant care, 44 percent
activities" with few men or "role models of
thought they should be more affectionate with
for such
displaying
preference
men
a
their children, and 88 percent thought there
activities (359)." An effect of this absence of
was some difference
between men and
intellectual models is that "young boys who
women in relation to infant care. Over one-
enjoy these endeavors may find themselves
half of the sample mentioned that recognizing
associating largely with females; the boys'
their children's emotional needs was a critical
sex-role preference at 4 years of age may
function of fatherhood. Future research on
therefore
(359).
feminine"
primarily
be
the effects of childcare classes on men's
Radin's finding that low-income fathers were
conceptions of fatherhood and the emotional
be involved in
less
likely intellectual
to
bonds of parent and child
warranted,
is
activities with their sons relative to middle-
particularly regarding fathers from working-
class fathers probably reveals more about
class and varied ethnic backgrounds.
environments
low-income structure
how
opportunities and experiences than about
Father-infant attachment is also a critical
issue in early childcare. Jones (1985) focused
gendered relationships in those families.
on the attachment of fathers to one-year-old
Cross-national studies have shown that
infants. The major finding was that men are
American fathers fare well when compared to
of
sensitive
needs
infants,
to
the
but
fathers in other countries. Day and Mackey
traditional sex role expectations and work
(1989) compared American fathers to fathers
schedules limit opportunities for fathers to
from 22 other countries with regard to the
develop
nurturant
behaviors.
Jones
physical association between father and child.
recommends that
future research
include
fathers'
found
They American
that
studying the effects of teaching fathers about
association with children is "rather typical."
newborn infants; expanding the sample base
However, they note that fathers in the United
to include fathers who are not White, well-
States do relatively well if judged according
and middle
educated,
and, most
class;
to an egalitarian model of shared childcare.
importantly, developing "a coherent family
Almost one-half of the American children
meta-theory" drawn from a wide range of
of women,
were the
responsibility
sole
disciplines and approaches. He also argues
compared with under one-fifth of American
for a combination of research studies that are
men. These data confirm what other studies
both descriptive and experimental to capture
that the domestic revolution is
have shown
the diversity of fathering practices, including
far from complete (Lamb, 1987; Morgan,
geographical and ethnic variations and other
Lyet and Condran, 1988; Seltzer, 1991).
differences between groups. More recent
summary,
research
fathering
on
In
the importance
of
studies
reinforce
also
identifies numerous factors that affect roles
father-infant
(Amato,
attachment
1994;
Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature
5
This study, though conducted some time
care (Coverman,
associated with
fathers'
ago, convincingly illustrates that there is a
1985; Berger, 1979; Bigner and Jacobsen,
1989; Day and Mackey, 1989; Feldman,
between
father
relationship
significant
involvement in early childcare and reduced
Nash, and Aschenbrenner, 1983; Gerson,
work time. There is room for much additional
Greenberger, Goldberg,
Hamill,
1993;
area, especially
O'Neill, and Payne, 1989; Marsiglio, 1991;
as
research
the
this
in
American economy undergoes restructuring
Radin and Harold-Goldsmith, 1989; Pleck,
and as new questions emerge: will there be
West
Scanzoni,
and and
1979;
1979;
room for job-sharing in the future, and how
Konnor, 1976). Generally, fathers are more
do employers perceive some forms of paid
involved in care if children are older (Barnett
and Baruch, 1987), when there are fewer
parental leave? These questions are implied in
a study by Lamb, Frodi, Hwang, and Frodi
children in the household, and if they are
(1982) that found that paid paternal and
and Morgan,
biological offspring (Harris
maternal leave permits the couples to divide
1991). Similarly, fathers with higher levels
parental responsibilities according to their
of education engage in childcare more readily
and more often and spend more time with
personal preferences rather than simply based
on social role expectations and pressures.
children in education-related activities such as
reading and home work (Marsiglio, 1991).
Pleck's (1979) study of men's family
Further, most research reports that fathers are
work provides a broad-based synthesis of
more involved with sons
than daughters
three perspectives on men's family work:
(Fish, New and Cleave,
Starrels,
and
1992;
(3)
exploitative,
(2)
(1)traditional,
1994). However, Russell (1983) found no
Within
the
perspectives.
roles
changing
engagement
fathers'
differences
such
in
"traditional" perspective, role differentiation
patterns.
is the norm. Men do little family work since
Work and Fathers' Care
their role is that of "breadwinner." The other
perspective makes use of
this
factor
in
have focused on the
studies
Several
men
are
that
namely
theory,
exchange
relationship between the demands of work
for
exchanging their "breadwinning" role
and the engagement of fathers in childcare. In
their wives' domestic labor and childcare.
one of the early
Levine (1977)
studies,
The third factor within this area is "resource
focused on the Scandinavian model, calling
theory" which is based on the allocation of
for the United
emulate family
States
to
resources, such as time; for example, when a
programs that exist in Norway and Sweden.
wife has less of a resource, like time, then the
Norway's
of
study,
the
the
time
At
more
proportionately
becomes
husband
government was supporting an experimental
engaged in family work. The "exploitation"
policy of work-sharing in which both parents
perspective has been shaped by feminist
worked no less than 16 hours a week and no
inequality
theory which
the
argues
that
more than 28 hours a week. Although the
of
performance
the
women
in
face
in income,
household suffered a decline
housework is yet another manifestation of
parents were universal in their support of the
their exploitation by men. The "changing
allowed
them
because
the
program
it
concerned with the
roles" perspective
is
opportunity to share parenting. In the late
historical and evolutionary development of
1970s, Sweden instituted a program of paid
men's and women's family roles and as such
parental insurance where each parent was
is a product of gender inequality in both
allowed a seven-month leave to care for his
home and workplace.
or her children.
Whether a man is employed may also
Fathers' Care: A Review of the Literature
10