ERIC ED363976: The Chicago Experiment: Enhanced Democratic Participation as a Lever for School Improvement.

7 Pages·1992·0.23 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 363 976
EA 025 469
AUTHOR
Bryk, Anthony S.; Rollow, Sharon G.
TITLE
The Chicago Experiment: Enhanced Democratic
Participation as a Lever for School Improvement.
INSTITUTION
Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools,
Madison, WI.
SPONS AGENCY
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),
Washington, DC.
PUB DATE
92
CONTRACT
R117Q00005-93
NOTE
7p.; For the complete publication, see ED 351 793.
PUB TYPE
Journal Articles (080)
JOURNAL CIT
Issues in Restructuring Schools; v3 p3-8 Fall 1992
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
Decentralization; Educational Change; Educational
Improvement; Elementary Secondary Education;
*Participative Decision Making; *Politics of
Education; *School Based Management; *School
Restructuring
IDENTIFIERS
*Chicago Public Schools IL
ABSTRACT
In December 1988 the Illinois State legislature
passed the Chicago School Reform Act, which sought to replace
traditional bureaucratic control of the schools with a complex system
of decision making by local schools. The act promotes three distinct
sites of power in school communities: (1) parent-dominated local
school councils (LSCs);
(2) increased principal responsibility and
accountability; and (3) increased teacher participation in decision
making. Following a description of the reform's background, this
paper expands the pluralist bargaining framework to one of "renewed
democratic institutions." This perspective maintains that a renewed
democratic politics, rooted in sustained local participation, is the
necessary antidote to unresponsive societal institutions. This
concept of school politics encourages attention to the nature of
political discourse in school communities. At the core of strong
democratic practice is sustained conversation about shared normative
understandings. As yet, however, school communities still need to
find ways to interact with outside technical expertise. Finally,
Chicago school reform serves a broader community education function.
The Chicago experiment holds promise of new knowledge about how
democratic participation can be revitalized in major urban centers.
(LMI)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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U.*. DEPARTIMINT OF EDUCATION
ONoce or Educebenet Reemuch end Improvement
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Enhanced Democratic Participation
as a Lever for School Improvement
highly centralized bureaucracy tended
This is a report on work-in-progress supported by the National
to squelch local initiative, to impair
Center on School Organization and Restructuring and a grant
principals', teachers', and parents'
efforts at improvement, and to dimin-
from the Spencer Foundation. The authors want to acknowledge
ish their sense of agency. In response,
the contributions of other members of the research team in this
PA 85-1418 sought to replace tradi-
effort: Barbara Schneider, Michael Bennett, Al Bertani, Jennifer
tional bureaucratic control of schools
with a complex system of decision-
Cox, David Jacobsen, Lisa Moukrie, Rachel 7 esnick, Sara Spurlark
making by local school. The vertical
and Josie Yanguas. The authors alone, however, are responsible for
"problem-solution path," where local
any errors of fact or interpretation.
school officials looked up into the
system for guidance, shifted horizon-
tally causing greater engagement of
Background on Chicago
school professionals with their local
communities.°
replacement of the Chicago Public
School Reform
School (CPS) system with a private
More specifically, the Act promotes
n December, 1988 the Illinois state
educational market. It seemed hardly
three distinct sites of power in school
I
legislature passed the Chicago
coincidental that radical decentraliza-
communities, each of which now
School Reform Act. This legislation,
tion swept over the school system just
holds potential for initiating a serious
PA 85-1418, emerged out of a lengthy
as African-Americans had assumed
challenge to the status quo. First, the
political process involving a coalition
leadership of the central administra-
Act created opportunities for parents
of community people working in tan-
tion and teachers' union.
and community members to exercise
dem with advocacy groups and the
Chicago's reform is also under
initiative by giving parent-dominated
business community.1
scrutiny on the national scene where
Local School Councils (LSCs) specific
Touted as "the most fundamental
critics frequently describe it as anti-
powers "to hire and fire" the school
professionala perspective not with-
restructuring since the early part of the
principal, and to approve the budget
twentieth century,"2 the Act has also
and School Improvement Plan.
out some justification, since it strips
been called "radical...a triumph...
tenure away from principals and
Second, principals received more
historic" and "more than educational
grants teachers only an advisory role.
power over their budgets, physical
change... In Chicago school reform is
Don Moore, an author of the Act and
plant and personnel, and were encour-
a social movement that embraces and
director of one of the city's school
aged to use these resources to solve
reflects the city's diversity." 5
local problems. Whereas in the past
advocacy groups, had specifically
Chicago's reform, however, is not
argued that "the power of urban
principals were expected to follow
without its critics. Suspicion still sim-
school professionals must be curtailed
orders passed down through the sys-
mers within the city about the "real
tem, the job now demands a respon-
because professional judgment has
motivations" behind reform. When
repeatedly been used as an excuse for
siveness to local clients. Third, the
parent empowerment and decentral-
Act gave teachers a voice in principal
practices that are harmful to children."4
ization were first proposed, a number
selection and retention by providing
Others see the reform as simply a replay
of the city's African-American leaders
two faculty seats on the LSC, and
of the 1960's community empower-
were skeptical. They argued that
ment movement, which promoted
advisory responsibility over school
parents want good schools for their
curriculum and instruction in the
similar improvements, but failed to
children, but did not wish to run
Professional Personnel Advisory
produce broad systemic change in
them nor did they necessarily have
Committee (PPAC). Chicago reform,
educational opportunities.5
the expertise to do so. They feared
On balance, PA 85-1418 involves
thus, sought to encourage greater
a more sophisticated conception of
that this reform was designed to fail in
engagement, not only by parents
order to achieve the real aim of so-re school reform than most of its critics
and community members, hut also
acknowledge. Prior to reform, the
by principals and teachers.
politicians and business people: T;1%.
2
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plant provisions were intended to
technical and financial assistance to
assure that schools have adequate
and advocate for individual schools.
resources and authority to advance
Education has been a sustained focus
their initiatives.
of activity among civic groups and
Balancing the emphasis on local
community-based organizations
empowerment are legislative provi-
(CB0s). The local philanthropic
sions that sought to pull schools
community has committed substantial
toward educational improvement.
new funds. Individual faculty members
These consisted of explicit educational
from colleges and universities in the
goals for children. e.g. 50% of the
metropolitan area are active in
students in each school will he at
Chicago's schools, and several new
national norms by 1994; and an
research, development, and priession-
extended set of school objectives, e.g.
al education centers have emerged. In
enhanced teacher professionalism,
the past, many of these individuals and
multicultural curriculum, and greater
institutions felt discouraged by their
parent involvement. The Act also
encounters with a seemingly disinter-
mandated strategic planning designed
ested school bureaucracy.
to make local school decision-making
Four years into reform, it is clear
more rational. Schools are required to
Computer skills start in kindergarten
that the CPS system is in the midst of
develop three year improvement plans
a major organizational restructuring.
which must be evaluated and updated
The central bureaucracy has been
In addition to reorienting the politi-
annually to assure progress toward local
substantially weakened, replaced by
cal environment of schimls toward
goals and legislatively mandated goals.
the greatly expanded democratic
greater local participation and respon-
The Chicago school syqem is required
activity both in individual school
sibility, the reform legislation has sever-
to report annually on each school's
communities and citywide. Neither
al other major provisions. It mandated
progress. If progress is insufficient, a
the Board, nor the central office, nor
that state compensatory education
school is subject to a variety of increas-
any other Angle entity is controlling
tunds flow directly to Chicago's schools
ingly severe sanctions that may culmi-
this chame process; rather, power is
proportional to their low income
nate in termination of the principal's
broadly diffused and extensive conver-
membership. This assured that schools
contract, removal of the ISC, and
sations about school improvement are
with high percentages of disadvantaged
placing the school under the receiver-
sustained throughout the city.
students would receive a substantial
ship of the Board of Education.
Moreover, the content of this conver-
infusion of funds to support new initia-
In general terms, the legislation
sation is evolving and these changes
tives. Previously, these funds were used
attacked the failures of the Chicago
are influencing policy. Two years ago
hy the District as general aid.
school system from two different direc-
attention focused almost exclusively
The Act also established greater
tions. At the grassroots level, it sought
on the formation and training of
control by the local school over its
to encourage expanded democratic
LSCs. Now conversations have shifted
personnel and building. Where teach-
participation by giving school commu-
to the kinds of additional resources
ers previously had been assigned by
nities some real authority and resources
and institutional supports needed by
the Board of Education, principals can
to solve problems locally. To guide
local schools to affect substantive
now recruit and choose new staff. To
these developments toward valued
changes in classrooms and instruction.
expedite the removal of incompetent
ends, the legislation added specific
At present, it is too early to deter-
teachers, the remediation process was
goals and objectives, and an account-
mine whether this legislation will
shortened from 1 year to 45 days.
ability and strategic planning process.
culminate in enhanced student learn-
(Only after an unsuccessful remedia-
The aim was to create an overall
ing.' It is clear, however, that Chicago
non process can an Incompetent
environment in the CPS that would
School Reform has catalyzed enter-
teacher be removed from the class-
promote local change.
prise in many individual school com-
room.) Principals also have a voice in
Moving beyond the formal legisla-
munities and throughout the city.
hiring and evaluating new janitorial
Whatever the longer term outcomes,
tive provisions, PA 85-1418 has also
and food service personnel by virtue of
precipitated a substantial expansion of
there are important lessons here about
the Act, and they now have their own
efforts to decentralize authority, to
institutional activity focused on
building keys. (Prior to reform, princi-
improving education. Over the last
enhance the capacities of parents and
pals held keys at the discretion of the
communities to look out for their own
four years, numerous associations
school engineer.) Taken together,
among the city's business and profes-
interests, and to engage professionals
these new budpet, personnel, and
sional leaders have emerged to provide
to work toward community goals.
4
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.3
Traditional Views of
Such activities are consistent with
have turned to writings about
School Politics
renewed democratic institutions) 2
accounts of the earlier school decen-
T
These authors maintain that a
tralization in New York, where the
he vast majority of past studies
basic elements of "big city" politics
renewed democratic politics, rooted
of educational politics have taken
fights over contracts and jobswas
in sustained local participation, is the
their lead from Peterson who focused
necessary antidote to unresponsive
largely transferred from the citywide
on the pluralist bargaining that
societal institutions. They remind us
occurred among interest groups on
Board of Education to district-level
boards. Although the context shifted,
Chicago's school board.8 This of the importance of public discussion
research, and other related studies at the basic nature of political activity
about common affairs, of the educa-
tional opportunities inherent in such
the federal and state level, offers a
not.
rather cynical and unflattering
Unlike New York, the fundamen- conversations, and how over the long
tal governance unit in Chicago is the
term, this activity can help institu-
picture of educational politics as a
individual school, not a district-level
"jungle" where individuals and groups
tions become more self-guided.
compete to advance their particular
board. As a result, the distance
Chicago's efforts at local empower-
between the site of political activity
ment hold potential for enabling
interests. Marginal changes may be
affected, but the basic structure of the
and its consequences are radically school communities to create an
alternative vision of education for
systemind especially the power rela-
reduced. Individual accountability
tions within it, remain unchallenged.
their children.
for political activity is now more
More recently, in a study of the
This concept of school politics
sharply drawn.
The introduction of parents
interactions between principals .1nd
encourages us to attend to the nature
and community members into local
teachers, Ball describes the struggle
of political discourse in school com-
school politics also appears to have
within British secondary schools over
munities. Who is involved, what
changed the nature of this activity
scarce resourcesfaculty promotions,
concepts appear salient and how are
plum teaching assignments, and
they being advanced? Do parents and
at least in some schools. As Ball
instructional materials.9 Headmasters notes, most educational decision-
community members bring forth new
in these schools deliberately allocated
interests that challenge existing ones?
making is dominated by professionals
and involves a deliberate attempt to
resources to maintain a semblance of
Now that individual principals and
harmony and protect the status quo.
depoliticize local problems. Public
teachers are freer to express views
We too have observed interest
distinct from the central office, what
choices about common affairs are
politics in individual Chicago school
viewed as technical issues requiring
issues do they introduce? Of key con-
experts and other managers to solve.
communities. The School Reform
cern is whether the definition of the
Act opened school doors to their
This professionalization of the public
schoolits mission, goals, and under-
standings about 'how things get done
neighborhoods. Not surprisingly,
realm displaces more fundamental
around here'is subject to challenge.
discussions among citizens about
pressing community issues often find
parallel expression withia the
their schools including the "opportu-
The spirit of the reform legisladon
nity to debate the definition of thc
and the broader discussions about
school. in one of our field site com-
school."10 In contrast, in those
schooling that are occurring across the
munities, for example, gentrification
is occurring. The LSC is factional-
city play an important role in this
Chicago schools where parents are
actively involved, we have seen LSC
regard. This rhetoric challenges each
ized between the interests of devel-
school community to create an institu-
opers and the affluent residents they
members press a more personal per-
spective about what "our school"
are bringing into the neighborhood,
tion that is sensitive to the needs of its
must do to meet the needs of "our
and the older CBOs who advocate
specific population, one where "all
children."
children" will succeed and no child
for the low-income families being
forced out. Allocation of discre-
will fail. If taken seriously at a local
tionary monies in this school has
school, these ideas can act as a powerful
A Politics of Enabling
become an arena for political con-
counterforce to a politics of private
School Communities 11
test. While low-income community
interests. In such a school, the efforts
T
groups want to encourage a greater
he full breadth of the political
of the LSC parent seeking to improve
involvement of poor parent and
educational opportunities for his or her
activity occurring in Chicago's
own child can evolve into advancing
community members by hiring some
schools is not adequately captured by
of these individuals as tutors, the
a conception of school politics which
the welfare of all children. Similarly,
school staff along with some of the
reduces all activities to a competition
efforts by teachers to improve their
newer community residents prefer to
among individuals and groups over
work conditions can press for a
use these funds to create additional
scarce resources. In expanding on this
re-examination of school operations
teaching positions.
to better serve students' needs.
pluralist bargaining framework, we
5
I
Bake sale at the
Parent Center
Places where such
activity is occurring are
marked by sustained
debate over the key ideas
that vie for moral authority
and their role in specific
school improvement plans.
To be sure, individuals
disagree and conflicts can
be intense. But these
debates are about matters
of broad concern, rather
than narrow personal
gamsind different per-
spective can often he
transformed into common
't
*
'i:
interests. This is quite dif-
. '41(
ferent trom pluralist bar-
fl.
gaining, which at its best
debate among parents, community
community, the emergence and growth
produces a compromise among fixed
members, teachers and the principal.
of such participation depends on these
interestsind at its worst creates win-
Each participant brings to these
very same resources.
ners and losers. In contrast, when a
discussions his or her own personal
These concerns notwithstanding,
politics of enabling school communi-
views, or normative understandings
the idea of school communities as
ties is successfully engaged, the base of
about what is "good," "proper," and
sites of strong democratic practice
shared understandings grows, positive
"right" for their school. Different nor-
remains appealing. This seems espe-
sentiments and trust among partici-
mative ideas built up out of past fami-
cially so when we acknowledge that
pants rise, and the capacity of the
ly, school, and work experiences are
the aim of political activityschool
school community to tackle even larg-
now transported into these delibera-
improvementIs not a quick fix.
er problems expands. Over time, a
tions and can become sources of con-
Rather, school change necessitates
detailed scrutiny of existing organiza-
flict among those now responsible for
the development of trusting personal
tional practices becomes likely.
their school. These disagreements can
relationships among parents, teachers,
On balance, the road to an effective
be particularly sharp in some schools
and principal, and requires that these
local politics is neither easy nor assured
because of the highly varied back-
relationships he sustained if school
and it is not without its own distinctive
grounds among the participants.
staff are to take risks, work together,
problems. Parochialism, intolerance
Included here are assumptions
and stay committed for the long haul.
toward strangers, and maintaining an
about: What is a good school (e.g. a
That is, this systemic change process
openness to new ideas are potential
place that has the programs and
demands a strong democratic practice.
pitfalls of localism. Moreover, many
resources of a suburban school versus
Chicago school communities suffer
one that may need to be structured
An Important Role for
from high student and family mobility,
differently to meet the needs of partic-
Normative Understandings
a history of hostility between parents
ular students and families); about what
At the core of strong democratic
and school professionals, and a neigh-
children should learn (e.g. specific
practice is sustained conversa-
borhood context plagued by poverty,
knowledge and skills to be acquired
tion. Chicago's school reform substan-
violence, and an overriding concern
versus a view of students as active
tially expanded the scope of this
for personal safety and survival. When
learners); about how children and
activity in individual schook. Many
combined with a cynical view that
parents should be treated, and how, in
basic school practices (e.g. should
politics means "taking care of your
rum, children and parents should treat
students march between classroom in
own," these are not favorable condi-
teachers. In addition, since politics is
orderly lines or he required to wear
tions for the development of a politics
the lever for school change in
uniforms?) which were simply talen
of enahling school communities.
Chicago, understandings about the
for granted in the past or decided by
Ironically, while broad participation
nature and purpose. ii civic and polit-
administrative fiat are now subject to
expands the social resources in a school
6
!'
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
ical participation, also come into play.
Opportunities for Community
This development, however, points
Although rooted in personal back-
Education
to a major unresolved issue: How can
ground and experience, normative
technical expertise be drawn into
inally, by expanding participation
understandings are not static. Rather
enhanced local politics? Schools are
as it does, and enlarging the terrain
they can he reshaped through social
relatively complex entities where
of school politics, Chicago School
interaction in settings where different
efficiency is highly valued. Past experi-
Reform serves a broader community
expectations and ideas prevail. The
ences with most educational innova-
education function. These opportuni-
SC holds potential as a context for
tions leaves us less than sanguine
ties may be particularly important in
such human development, to culti-
about how well most schools fare
urban contexts where many parents
vate the skills of citizenship, enrich
when developing their own strategic
and community members are under-
their personal competence. Here,
plans. While some may do fine on
educated and disenfranchised, and
parents, teachers, and principal can
their own, many need to engage sus-
where school professionals have also
learn about each other, and in the
tained outside assistance if the end
had few occasions in the past to exer-
course of work they must do together,
result of the participation in schools
cise initiative. Through participation
forge a common interest. Through
is improving student learning.
in LSCs and ..,ther school-based activi-
such interactions, basic understand-
How these new relationships are to
ties, individuals can develop public
ings about roles, authority and
he tbrged remains unclear. Instructional
skills of citizenship. leadership and
domains ot' practice can he recast and
guidance in the tbrm of top-down
political discourse that are essential Eo
the institution itself renormed.
mandates from the central office were
a democratic life. This idea resonates
Ultimately, if such activity is main-
rarely effective in the past and seem
with recent calls for renewal of our
tained for a period of time, a more
highly inappropriate now. Similarly,
democratic institutions such as
unitary form of politics may emerge,
the experiences of the last three years
Lindlolom's discussion of a need for a
when matters of importance are regu-
where schools have had increased free-
more self-guided society, Barber's con-
larly discussed, and conflict is less
dom to purchase their own goods and
siderations of the features of a strong
threatening because there are avenues
services are not very encouraging
democracy, Bowles and Gintis's analy-
for resolution when it does occur.13
(although some individual schools are
sis of the link between adult learning
The institution benefits from a
notable exceptions). 14 In short, nei-
and political practice, and Evan and
substantial social resource formed
ther the command authority of a school
Boyte's notion of the educative func-
out of both a set of principles held in
bureaucracy nor the contractual rela-
tion of "free spaces."
common and the trusting face-to-face
tionship of the marketplace seems par-
The emergence of "truly disadvan-
relationships built up within the small
ticularly well-suited for this purpose.
taged" urban communities in recent
confines of a single school community.
Interestingly, the new literature on
times, however, raises new questions
enhanced democratic participation is
about their ability to engage and sus-
The Interaction with
largely silent on the question of how
tain the kind of participation envi-
Technical Knowledge
local political practice might engage
sioned here, and to use the opportuni-
and Expertise
effectively with outside expertise. In
ties it affords for broader commurity
Currently, Chicago is awash with
our view, new cooperative relationships
education.15 To date, much of the
"Christmas tree" schools where
between local schools and outside
research on citizen participation has
large amounts of discretionary money
assistance appear necessary. Neither
focused on middle class and largely
have combined with private gifts to
the external expert as supervisor nor
homogeneous communities.16 While
add new programs and more equipment,
as service provider will suffice. Rather,
there is a literature on low income
a bit like hanging dazzling ornaments
these individuals must become
neighborhoods, it is largely concerned
on a tree. Unfortunately, the tree itself
engaged in some fashion as partici-
with Great Society programs at a time
and its basic needs have gone unat-
pant-stakeholders in the political
when resources were relatively ample
tended.* Awareness of this problem,
practice of a school community. The
(or at least expanding) and the com-
however, is growing across the city
lessons gleaned here from Chicago's
munities themselves were more advan-
and a new wisdom is emerging that
experiences should be of broad interest
taged relative to today's conditions.17
the core of schoolingteachers'
as they touch on larger enduring con-
The Chicago experiment holds
knowledge and classroom practices
cerns about the proper rol of techni-
promise of new knowledge about how
must be substantially improved.
cal expertise in a democratic society.
democratic participation can be revi-
talized in our major urban centers. 4
Especially popular are computer systems that are now sold directly to schools and
promise tr. :,elp
children on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, hut deliver computerized drill sheets that directly
mimic the
tests. In fact, under decentralization, local schools have become a new market for an expanding net-
work of entrepreneurs.
7
Evans. S.M.. St Boyte. H.C. (1986). Free spaces
within Chicago schools and has provided
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2
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4 See note 2 ab, (ye. p 10;
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in
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16 See tor example, Wen, B . & Ogawa. R.T
6 Hess, (.1.A (109P cchikil restructunng.
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ing. San Francisco. 1992..md also work-m-
O'Connell. M. (1991. Spring). School reform
ilics Analysis. 10(4), 251-270; also see
progress on a doctoral thesis at the University
Chicago style: How cimens orgam:ed to
Manshridge, note 12 above.
of Chicago. Department ot Education.
change public policy. (A special issue of The
17 Petercon, P E. (1951) City hmus. Chicago:
Neighborhood Works.) Chicago: Center for
12 Barber. 5.B. (1984) Strong democracy
University at Chi:ago Press.
Neighhirhooci Technology.
Participatory politics (mir a new age Berkeley:
t :toward. R.A. (1971) Regulating
riven. F.F .
University of California Press.
Rollow. SO. (1990). Populism and protessumat-
the poor The tunctions ot public welfare.
ism. School reform in Chicago [Unpublished
Bellah. R.M., Madsen, R..Sullmv.un. W M..
New York. Vintage Books.
Paperl. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Swidler. A.. St Tipton, SM. (1991). The
Wildavskv, A. (1973).
Pressm.m.
good society New York: Knopt.
7. Some evidence is already available on spe-
Implementation Berkeley. University ot
cific provisions of the legislation. The tOr-
Bowles. S., St antis, H. (1987). Democracy and
Cilitornia Press.
mula ro allocate state compensatory funds
capitalism Property. community and the contra-
directly to individual schools has had a sub-
dictions of modern social thought New York.
stantial eguah:ing effect on resource levels
Bast,: Bisiks.
11