ERIC ED351862: Language Maintenance and Language Renewal among Cherokee People in Oklahoma.

17 Pages·1992·0.33 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 351 862
FL 020 616
AUTHOR
Brooks, Barbara J.
TITLE
Language Maintenance and Language Renewal among
Cherokee People in Oklahoma.
PUB DATE
92
NOTE
17p.; In: Linn, Mary Sarah, Ed. and Oliverio, Giulia,
R. M., Ed. Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics,
Volume 17, Numbers 1 and 2; see FL 020 603.
PUB TYPE
Research/Technical (143)
Reports
EDRS PRICE
MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
American Indian Languages; Anthropological
Linguistics; *Cherokee; *Language Maintenance;
Uncommonly Taught Languages; Written Language
IDENTIFIERS
*Cherokee (Tribe); *Oklahoma
ABSTRACT
There was a time in the Americas when many different
languages were spoken by the diverse native peoples. This situation
changed rapidly as waves of Europeans arrived, containing and
controlling the native peoples, often forcing them to forfeit
language and culture. Today remnants of some Native American tribes
are striving to find ways to maintain or renew their own languages
This paper explores some of the issues involved, and then focuses on
efforts to maintain and renew Oklahoma Cherokee. (Author)
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LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND LANGUAGE RENEWAL
Among Cherokee People in Oklahoma
Barbara J. Brooks
Abstract:
There was a time in the Americas
when many very different languages
were spoken
by the diverse native peoples.
This situation
changed
rapidly
as
waves
of
colonizing
Europeans arrived, containing and controlling
the native peoples, often forcing
them to
forfeit culture and language.
Today remnants
of some Indian tribes are striving
to find
ways to maintain or renew their own languages.
This
paper
explores
some
of
the
issues
involved,
and
then
on efforts
focuses
to
maintain and renew Oklahoma Cherokee.
Historical Overview
Before contact with usurping Europeans,
the native
peoples of the Americas spoke
thousands of separate
languages (Driver 1961:555).
In 500 years the native
languages of North America alone have
been reduced to
fewer than 200, with one
or more additional languages
being lost each year (Leap 1982:20).
Furthermore, Krauss
estimates that 80% of the remaining
languages are already
'moribund', that is, not being acquired
by children (Hale
1992:4).
At the present time, however, there
are also
strong movements afoot within certain
American Indian
groups in North America to maintain
or to renew their own
language as a viable part of community
life. This paper
will provide a brief overview
of the historical basis for
the present situation, and
then tat' a more in-depth look
at the options and choices regarding
language maintenance
now facing the Cherokee Indians of
Oklahoma.
The history of United States-Indian
dealings is that
of a cycle of making and breaking
treaties on the part of
the U.S. government and the
forced removal of Indian
groups across the continent.
Some people, such as the
Winnebagos, were forced to
move six different times
as
white
settlers
encroached
on
their
lands
(Banks
The
1979:152).
following
excerpt
from
Cherokee
a
newspaper hypothesized how the whites might
set about
taking Indian land in Texas:
2
BEST COPY
AVA1LM
Kansas Working Papers
in Linguistics, Volume 17, Number 2,
1992, pp. 109-124
110
sent down
to
commissioner will
be
a
...
negotiate, with a pocket full of money and his
Some chiefs he will
mouth full of lies.
bribe, some he will flatter and some he will
be
will
the
result
and
drunk;
make
...
something that will be called a treaty (Hagan
1961:99).
Not content to take Indian lands, the newcomers also
set about systematically to undermine Indian social
structure, seizing upon language as a central means for
'civilizing' these peoples whose ways were different from
Thus:
their own (Banks 1979:156).
the Nez Perch did not lose their language by
accident, but rather by design, through the
policy of the federal government and various
The outside
religious and missionary groups.
groups determined that the Indian tribes would
learn English as a replacement for their own
But the process did. not
ancestral languages.
Tribes were also expected to
stop there.
one
religion
another,
with
supplant
one
with
mode
another,
of
culture
one
and
(St. Clair and
subsistence with another ...
Leap 1982:xi).
Justification for the attempts to eliminate Indian
languages were spelled out in the 1868 report of the so-
called Peace Commissioners, who concluded that Indian
barbarous dialects should be blotted out and
peoples'
the English language substituted' (Report of Commissioner
of Indian Affairs (CIA) 1868:43-4).
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) soon followed the
CIA reports by making this same policy explicit in its
schools. Upon learning that both Dakota and English were
being used for instruction, the Bureau directed:
You will please inform the authorities of this
school that the English language only must be
youth placed there
taught
the
Indian
for
educational and industrial training at the
expense of the government.
If Dakota or any
other language is taught such children, they
will be taken away and their support by the
government will be withdrawn from the school
(Report of CIA 1887:xxi).
Specific measures taken against individual students
their native
who used
language
included
school
at
111
beatings and having their mouths washed out with the
harsh lye soap then in use (Metcalf 1979:15). Even a
little seven-year-old girl, away from home for the first
time and speaking only Cherokee, was caned every time she
uttered any sound that was not English, a language she
had never heard and could not speak (M.A. Wickliffe,
punishments
for
Various
communication).
personal
speaking an Indian language at school continued well into
the 1950's.1
According to Walker (1981:170-171), there were at
least three widely held assumptions behind the crusade
against native languages. These included a belief on the
part of English-speaking educators that English was
better than any other language, and certainly better than
'the only language
any Indian language,
and perhaps
In addition, there
appropriate for rational discourse.'
was the assumption that 'all Americans should speak,
read, and write English,' in spite of the fact that 'no
generation of Americans has as yet conformed to this
ideal.' A third assumption was that 'one must assiduously
divest oneself of competence in any language other than
English' in order to become fully fluent in English.
These 'demonstrably false' assumptions are still popular
among English-speaking educators who remain 'reluctant to
permit the use of native languages in their classrooms.'
Furthermore, blatant racial prejudice is evident in
comments such as this one,
from an article entitled
'Education for Indians': 'They are, as a race, distinctly
inferior to white men
intellectual vitality and
in
capability' (Harrison 1887:321). Attitudes such as this
were also manifested in official policy statements:
(the Indian) can read and write English
If
and understands
understandingly,
the first
four rules in arithmetic, he is sufficiently
educated
purposes
practical
for
for
all
generations to come (Report of CIA 1884:67).
On the other hand, many Indian leaders tried to
point out that poor academic attainment was due in large
part to incompetent instructional personnel and not to
any shortcomings of Indian children.
These leaders
appealed to Washington to more adequately fulfill its
side of the signed treaties.
One superintendent of
Indian Affairs duly reported that:
The chiefs whom I met in council complained
that the employees heretofore sent to instruct
them under the provisions of the treaty had
4
112
taken their women to live with, and had done
little else; and they seemed desirous to know
the
by
proposed
method
was the
that
if
government to carry out the stipulations of
the treaty (Report of CIA 1862:303).
In addition to overt attempts to eradicate Indian
there were other factors hastening their
languages,
The countless government-backed efforts to
demise.
eliminate or at least reduce Indian populations through
armed conflict, germ warfare, forced removals and other
complete
the
in
resulted
activities
disruptive
disappearance of countless tribes, their languages along
Even more recently, the government imposed a
with them.
series of relocation programs designed to entice young
Indian people by the thousands to leave their homes, come
to resettlement cities in pursuit of frequently elusive
jobs and thus effectively break up cultural continuity
In addition, the
within the family structure back home.
relocated Indians often found themselves linguistically
isolated as well, and use of their native lan9,Aage had to
be abandoned in the new environment (Leap 1981:134-6).
Overall societal prejudice has also been a factor.
Until recently, Indian languages were looked down upon by
the majority white population. Young children were often
made to feel that 'in order to gain an adequate command
forced by a
the Indian student
English,
is
...
of
culturally alien educational system to deny a basic part
All too often, even those
of himself' (CAL 1975:3).
academics who specialize in languages and linguistics
have failed to exert their professional efforts and
sufficiently address their attention to Indian languages
before they perished (Hale 1992:6-10). Thus, Chaika once
reported that:
unimportant have American Indians been
... so
to their usurpers that Ohanessian
1972
in
could complain that we did not know how many
Indians of any type were monolingual Indian
speakers, how many were bilingual, what sorts
of English were spoken by different Indian
how
tribal
speak
not
many
groups,
did
in what social settings
languages at all,
what
used
Indian and
were
languages
in
English was
what
settings
sorts
used, of
differences there were between the generations
in language use, or what attitudes the Irdians
had towards English and towards their tribal
languages (1982:240).
113
The pressures against Indian language maintenance
themselves.
parents
by
Indian
compounded
were
Oftentimes, a parent who vividly remembered being beaten
for 'speaking Indian' in school elected to raise the next
generation to speak only English, hoping to spare them
the same tortures and societal handicaps in the future
Against such a backdrop of
(M.A. Wickliffe, p.c.).
little wonder that many Indian
difficulties,
it
is
languages failed to survive.
The fact that any Indian languages have persisted at
is an attestation to the cultural cohesion and
all
strength of Indian peoples. Walker (1981a:170) cogently
makes an interesting comparison of the literacy levels of
those for whom English is the native language and those
for whom it is nct:
We are told that a very large minority of
speak
who
graduates
high
school
American
English as a native language are 'functionally
That is to say that millions of
illiterate.'
the United
English
in
native speakers
of
States are unable to read their own language
adequately despite twelve years of instruction
under
up
growing
literacy and
skills
in
constant bombardment of printed English
...
This being the case, it is remarkable indeed
that Americans whose first language is not
who have received no
support
English and
whatever from the American educational system
have nonetheless contrived somehow to preserve
In the case
their own traditions of literacy.
of some American Indian societies this feat
has been accomplished by people who,
for
several generations, were forbidden to use
their native language at all in Federal Indian
Schools.
This 'remarkable' accomplishment is due in large part to
the fact that language is viewed by many Indian peoples
identity
cultural
and
critical maintaining
to
as
continuity (Medicine 1982:3).
Today, Indian people are more and more expressing
their concern and beginning to seek ways to keep their
native language viable or to renew it if it has fallen
Indeed, in some cases,
into relative disuse.
Ironically, the very parents who neglected to
teach their children Lakota are now the ones
who
about
the
most concerned
having
are
6
114
realize.
school, since they
language taught at
their ancestral
disappearance of
that the
identity
the loss of group
tongue will mean
(Schach 1980:178).
Cherokee
interest in
Oklahoma take great
Cherokee people in
themselves
whether or not they
their native language,
home
continues to be the
Indeed, Cherokee
still use it.
assert that a
and some would
language for thousands,
to be
Cherokee in order
able to speak
person must be
Cherokee.2
proud history of
long and justly
There is also a
today in many
which continues even
literacy in Cherokee
practice of traditional
and in the
Cherokee churches
monolingual
Beginning with Sequoyah, a
Cherokee doctors.
people in 1821,
syllabary for his
Cherokee who invented a
of literacy far
established a tradition
Cherokee people
In the 1830's
white neighbors'.
surpassing their new
using
literate,
estimated to be 90%
Cherokees were
and
letters
personal
from
everything
for
Cherokee
1969:151).
and books (Walker
accounts to newspapers
Mooney
of many which led
This achievement was one
Cherokees
'unlike most Indians,
(1975:xi) to comment that
meant that Cherokee
conservative.' By this he
are not
but rather 'that
to the old ways,
people did not cling
tribes, made the
easily than other
the Cherokee, more
tools, and
tradition to methods,
transition from ancient
and useful.'
recognized as superior
ways that they
of literacy in
Thus the invention
(Bettis 1975:xi).
into practice.
embraced and put
Cherokee was quickly
them to
adapt also enabled
Willingness to learn and
livelihood were
their land and
adjust and survive as
whittled away by treaties.
left of
discovered on what was
Eventually, gold was
confiscated the
The U.S. government
the ancestral land.
Cherokee people
and marched the
Cherokee printing press
the winter of
'Trail of Tears' during
along the infamous
Nation dead
quarter of the Cherokee
1838-39, leaving one
arrival in Indian
Nevertheless, upon
along the way.
new
reorganized and soon set up a
Territory, the people
considered the
Knowledge has long been
printing press.
responsible member of Cherokee
hallmark of a mature and
with
literacy
associate
'Cherokees
and
society,
the
accordance,
In
1981a:180).
(Walker
knowledge'
in
outstanding school system
Cherokees established an
of
Territory, kept up at the expense
Tahlequah, Indian
1981a:150).
all citizens (Walker
the Cherokee Nation, for
115
This system included high schools for both women and men,
primary, mission and orphan schools for
as well as
Indian, black and white children (Mooney 1975:157). Most
Cherokees were literate in both Cherokee and English at
Indeed,
this time, and both were used in the schools.
'the Western Cherokee had a higher English literacy level
than the neighboring white populations of either Texas or
Far from emulating the
(Walker 1969:151).
Arkansas'
Cherokees' success, the United States dismantled their
schools, confiscated the Cherokee press once again, and
officially dissolved the Cherokee Nation, incorporating
it into the state of Oklahoma in 1907 (Walker 1981:147-
50;.
literacy in both Cherokee and
Since that time,
English has dropped, although spoken Cherokee is still
Leap (1981:134) quotes one Cherokee
quite important.
educator who explained how important a viable Indian
language tradition is:
the most symbolic
For most Indian tribes,
The Cherokee
thing to them is their language.
talk their language and by this they are able
to define the tribe ... There was a time when
If we
we lost most of our people over sixty.
did not have our rituals written down, we
Young people in
would not have them today.
urban areas do not know to speak their native
language and I think it is critical that they
If they don't, they will be in a bind
learn.
because you cannot be an Indian and go home
and not know how to speak your language.
Certain segments of Cherokee society continue to promote
Both of these are
Cherokee language and literacy.
closely tied
cultural identity
language
and
to to
It would seem that, as long as
attitudes and issues.
Cherokee and English each serve viable separate functions
for Cherokee people, bilingualism will be the norm in
their part of the world.
Contemporary Issues
The following excerpt from The Written Languages of
the World concerning Cherokee helps to establish a
backdrop for the discussion of issues that follows:
No other Indian ethnic group has made so
decided an effort to modernize their political
and cultural life in order to adapt themselves
to new conditions created by the white man and
thus to make possible peaceful collaboration,
without surrendering their inalienable rights
S
116
time,
identity ... At the same
to a community
is
for so small a group
language maintenance
in a time of increasing
becoming more difficult
segments of the
interaction between all
McConnell
and
(Kloss
society
country's
1978:534).
are
issues now facing Cherokees
Some of the language
are more
facing other groups; some
similar to those
The general
situation in Oklahoma.
specific to their own
be maintained
the language should
issues include whether
be devised for
renewal programs should
or not; whether
what method or
learned the language;
those who have not
what vehicle
should be employed;
methods of maintenance
or community
i.e. schocl instruction,
should be used,
be
activities; what mode should
activities, or home-based
designed to preserve
the program be
employed, i.e. should
of the
or one at the expense
oral or written Cherokee,
to maintain the
it
is
whose responsibility
other;
for it; what
program, and to pay
language, to conduct a
the program; who
should be served by
group or groups
qualifications should
materials; what
should prepare
the
should be used so that
teachers have; what measures
is
it
is doing whatever
people know when a program
and so on.
supposed to be doing,
is the
interest to some Cherokees
Of particular
needs
language
Cherokee
the
whether
of
question
in
should be done by whom
maintenance or not, and what
to be extinct for
Cherokee was considered
either case.
at least
earlier in this century,
all practical purposes
Even the Kilpatricks
outsiders were concerned.
as far as
the
'Sequoyah's syllabary and
in Oklahoma thought that
same
the
approximately
in
stand
crane
whooping
itself
The spoken language
relationship to oblivion ...
1965:viii).
(Kilpatrick and Kilpatrick
faces extinction'
country
hill
the
back
into
look
thorough
Yet
a
Cherokee-speaking population
communities reveals that the
is now estimated at well over
continues toincrease and
alone (D.H. King, p.c.).
11,000 in Oklahoma
internal
the differing
Equally interesting are
The official tribal
attitudes about the language.
accomplishments, but until
Council is proud of past
towards the
laissez faire attitude
recently adopted a
if Cherokee were nice but not
fate of the language, as
At the other end of the
modern life.
really necessary in
have
of conservatives who
spectrum is an organized group
must be protected and
consistently held that Cherokee
people.
cultural identity of the
promoted as part of the
to
from the parent who wishes
Individual opinions range
her
maintained but does not wish to see
see the language
held back academically or
children and grandchildren
speak Cherokee, to those who
socially because they may
9
117
keeping the language alive that
feel that it is onll, by
basic
from losing positive
they will be able to keep
(R. Allen,
evident in dominant society
group values not
who actively promote language
p.c.). Then there are some
insure that there will be expert
renewal designed to
others to keep learning the
speakers who will encourage
language (Otto 1982:32-3).
which vehicle should
Likewise, people disagree as to
language. The Cherokee syllabary
be used to maintain the
in some Cherokee speaking
has traditionally been taught
Then
doctors as well.
churches and is used by Cherokee
Cherokee grandparents whose
there are the monolingual
Many people feel
grandchildren still learn from them.
especially those who feel that
that this is sufficient,
bilingual as the need arises
people will manage to become
p.c.).
in their environment (J. Gonzales,
the best vehicles
Many others feel that schools are
assisting
for
and
Cherokee
maintaining
for
both
become bilingual in
monolingual Cherokee children to
At the same time there are
Cherokee and English.
Indians, see white-
Cherokees who, like so many other
Indian culture, since
controlled schools as a threat to
people from their culture
they so often separated young
On the other
both.
either physically or socially, or
have fond memories of
hand, there are some who actually
boarding schools, despite the
years spent at the old
inadvertently
some cases they
because in
hardships,
Indian identity albeit
helped to perpetuate a sense of
(McBeth 1984:4-12).
with English as the lingua franca
entrusting language
Two other serious concerns about
of
dearth
the
involve
schools
the
to
maintenance
competent in
qualified anr' motivated personnel who are
skills, and the very real
both Cherokee and teaching
There have been many cutbacks in
problem of continuity
.9
and there can be no
public school programs lately,
language
future government support for
guarantee of
although the
maintenance or bilingual education programs,
change that
Native American Languages Act may well help
set up a
It can be quite disheartening to
situation.*
expectations and hopes, only to have
program that raises
children accrues.
it dismantled before any benefit to the
unfulfilled promises.
Indians have had quite enough of
regarding
More unanimity of agreement can be found
than on any
which mode of language,. oral or written,
Cherokee people are justifiably proud of
other issue.
both spoken
their history of literacy and usually expect
There is none
available.
and written Cherokee to be made
writing found among certain
of the aversion to forms of
Zaharlick
1984:42-52,
groups
(Walker
Indian
other
1982:44).