Entrepreneurship Education: A Lifelong Learning Approach PDF
Preview Entrepreneurship Education: A Lifelong Learning Approach
Contributions to Management Science Sukanlaya Sawang Editor Entrepreneurship Education A Lifelong Learning Approach Contributions to Management Science The series Contributions to Management Science contains research publications in all fields of business and management science. These publications are primarily monographs and multiple author works containing new research results, and also featureselectedconference-basedpublicationsarealsoconsidered.Thefocusofthe seriesliesinpresentingthedevelopmentoflatesttheoreticalandempiricalresearch across different viewpoints. This book series is indexed in Scopus. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/1505 Sukanlaya Sawang Editor Entrepreneurship Education A Lifelong Learning Approach 123 Editor Sukanlaya Sawang International Centrefor Transformational Entrepreneurship Faculty of Business andLaw CoventryUniversity Coventry, UK ISSN 1431-1941 ISSN 2197-716X (electronic) Contributions toManagement Science ISBN978-3-030-48801-7 ISBN978-3-030-48802-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48802-4 ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2020 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Contents Entrepreneurship Education, Pedagogy and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Annafatmawaty Binti Ismail and Sukanlaya Sawang Entrepreneurship Education in UK Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Stella Zhixin Xu Addressing the Pre/Post-university Pedagogy of Entrepreneurship Coherent with Learning Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Alexandros Kakouris and Daniele Morselli The Role of University-Level Entrepreneurship Education in Creating New Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Mervi Raudsaar, Piia Vettik-Leemet, Merike Kaseorg, and Kaire Vahejõe Student Social Enterprise Engagement: Capturing Process, Benefits and Measuring Social Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Arun Sukumar, Zimu Xu, and Richard Tomlins Mentoring Senior Entrepreneurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Andreas Walmsley and Ghulam Nabi Entrepreneurship Education for “Mature Preneurs”: The Role of Positive Psychology in Active Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Roxanne Zolin Understanding the Barriers Faced by Older Entrepreneurs: A Case Study of a “Silver Workers” Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Hazel Squire v Entrepreneurship Education, Pedagogy and Delivery AnnafatmawatyBintiIsmailandSukanlayaSawang Abstract This chapter presents an overview of this book. The chapter explains the background of entrepreneurship education and relevant pedagogical concepts. Entrepreneurshipeducationinsteadofseenasoneofthewaytojobcreation,italso could help to develop knowledge and skills which is benefit as a preparation for life,notjustacareerpath.Theaimofthisbookistoexplorehowentrepreneurship educationisembeddedthroughoutalifecycleoflearners.Sofar,theentrepreneur- shipeducationtendstostartinhighereducationlevelandasanadhocbasis.This means some institutions offer as an elective or compulsory course, others offer as adegreeprogram.Theentrepreneurshipeducationhasnotyetbeenwidelyadopted asacorecurriculuminmostcountries.Further,theformalentrepreneurshipeduca- tionrarelyoffersbeyondtheyounglearners.Thisbookofferscriticalviewsofwhom entrepreneurshipeducationcanbedeliveredto,includingchildhood/schoolchildren, highereducations,andsenior/olderpeople. 1 DefiningEntrepreneurshipEducation Entrepreneurshipeducationcanhaveapositiveimpactoneconomiesbyequipping individualswithentrepreneurialthinkingandenterpriseskills(GallowayandBrown 2002). It may be useful to distinguish the concept between entrepreneurship and enterprise. According to Rae and his colleagues (Rae et al. 2012, p. 382), the two conceptsaredefinedasfollowing: Enterprise:Studentslearningtousetheskills,knowledgeandpersonalattributesneededto applycreativeideasandinnovationstopracticalsituations.Theseincludeinitiative,inde- pendence,creativity,problemsolving,identifyingandworkingonopportunities,leadership, A.B.Ismail PolytechnicSandakan,Sabah,Malaysia B S.Sawang( ) CoventryUniversity,Coventry,UK e-mail:[email protected] QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Brisbane,Australia ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2020 1 S.Sawang(ed.),EntrepreneurshipEducation,ContributionstoManagementScience, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48802-4_1 2 A.B.IsmailandS.Sawang andactingresourcefullytoeffectchange.‘Enterprise’isalsousedasanountodescribea smallornewbusinessorcommunityventure. Entrepreneurship: The study of enterprise and entrepreneurs, including the practical and academicknowledge,skillsandtechniquesusedinbeinganentrepreneur.Anentrepreneur isapersonwhoidentifiesorcreatesandactsonanopportunity,forexamplebystartinga newbusinessventureorsocialenterprise.Entrepreneurshipisadistinctiveexampleofthe applicationofenterpriseskillsandattributesinaspecificcontext. There has been a debate about the use of the terms “entrepreneurship educa- tion”,“entrepreneurialeducation”and“enterpriseeducation”amongentrepreneur- shipscholars(Bacigalupoetal.2016).Forexample,astudyundertakenbyDurham UniversityBusinessSchoolin1989noticedthattheterm“entrepreneurshipeduca- tion”iscommonlyusedinCanadaandtheUnitedStates.Thistermisrarelyusedin theUnitedKingdom(UK)andonlyoccasionallyinEurope.IntheUKeducational system,itislabelled“enterprise”ratherthan“entrepreneurshipeducation”because itsmajorobjectives aretodevelop enterprisingpeople andinculcate anattitudeof self-relianceusinganappropriatelearningprocess(GaravanandO’Cinneide1994). Incontrast,theterm“entrepreneurialeducation”or“trainingforentrepreneurship” are widely used phrases in Britain, and are intended to take on a generic meaning (CurranandStanworth1989). Apartfromtheterminology,therehasalsobeenadiscussionwhetherentrepreneur- shipisaneducationprogramoratrainingprogram(EuropeanCommission2013). If we look at the definition itself, “training” refers to the acquisition of knowl- edge, skills and competencies as a result of teaching practical skills and knowl- edge. Conversely, “Education” refers to learning a theory and reinforcing knowl- edgeinwhichyoualreadyhaveabackground.Intermoftheentrepreneurshipcon- text, however, entrepreneurship education has tended to focus on building knowl- edge and skills about, or for the purpose of entrepreneurship, amongst secondary and higher education students. Whereas entrepreneurship training tends to focus onbuildingknowledgeandskills,explicitlyinpreparationforstartingoroperating anenterprise,targetingthepotentialandpracticingentrepreneurs(Alexandriaetal. 2014).Bothentrepreneurshipeducationandentrepreneurshiptraningaimtostimu- lateentrepreneurship,buttherearedifferenceintermsofprogramobjectives,target audiences,andoutcomes. Therearealsovariousdefinitionsofentrepreneurshipthathavebeenproposedin thecontextofentrepreneurialeducation,invarioussettings,andusedbyvariouscate- goriesofactors.Forexample,Hindle(2007)definesentrepreneurshipeducationwith morebroaddefinition.Hereferstothetransferofknowledgeabouthow,bywhom, andwithwhateffectsopportunitiestocreatefuturegoodsandservicesarediscov- ered,evaluated,andexploited.Hediscussestwomainaspectsofseekingtheeffective entrepreneurshipcurriculum,whicharethepractical(skills)andthetheory.Kouril- sky(1995)supportsthisidea,assertingthatentrepreneurshipeducationisimportant because it provides skills related to creating jobs. Hence, to provide students with entrepreneurialskills,educationaleffortsmustidentifymarketopportunityasamain attributeintheentrepreneurshipcurriculum. Pittaway and Cope (2007) expand the definition of “entrepreneurship educa- tion” by discussing the outputs of entrepreneurship education. According to these EntrepreneurshipEducation,PedagogyandDelivery 3 researchers,entrepreneurshipeducationinvolvesaspectsthatincludeemployability skills,socialenterprise,self-employment,venturecreation,andemploymentinbusi- nesses.Theyarguethatitisimportanttounderstandwhatentrepreneurshipeducation istryingtoachieve,suchasenhancedgraduateemployabilityortheencouragement ofgraduateenterprise.Asaresult,wecanseethattherearenowmanyentrepreneur- ship programs with different purpose that are being offered by higher education institutionsaroundtheworld(Morselli2019). The diversity of views among researchers about the definition of entrepreneur- shipeducationisduetothelackofaclearconsensusonwhatthiseducationcom- prises (Vesper and Gartner 1997). Therefore, most of the content of entrepreneur- shipeducationvariesaccordingtotheinstructor’spersonalpreferences(Garavanand O’Cinneide1994).Thedefinitions of“entrepreneurship education” thathavebeen givenhavebeenstructuredinawaythattheyreflectthemajoraimsandobjectives to be achieved among various target audiences (Mwasalwiba 2010). Nonetheless, Mwasalwiba(2010)reviewed20articlesandfoundthatmostofthearticlesagreedto relateentrepreneurshipeducationtosomekindofeducationalprocessthatcanaffect attitudes,behavioursorintentions,acquisitionofpersonalskills,businessformation, opportunityrecognition,andmanagingsmallfirms.EntrepreneurshipEducationalso refersasaprocessthatinvolvedintheencouragementofentrepreneurialactivities behavioursandmindsets(BechardandToulouse1998;Binksetal.2006). Thus,whenhighereducationinstitutionsdesignanyentrepreneurshipeducation, it is important to understand the definition, as this will affect the objective and theimpactoftheprogram(FayolleandGailly2008).Inthisbook,“entrepreneur- ship education” is defined as the process of providing individuals with the skills (managerialandentrepreneurial)thatcaninfluencetheentrepreneurialintention. 2 PedagogicalandAndragogicalLearning ofEntrepreneurship Entrepreneurshipeducationisanapproachorpedagogicalprogram,ormoreaccu- rately, an enterprise approach to education Gibb (1993) and Fayolle et al. (2006). Theterms‘pedagogy’and‘andragogy’haveoftenbeenusedinterchangeably.There are, however, differences between these two terms. ‘Andra’ is a form of the world ‘adult’,thereforeandragogyliterallymeansteachingadults.Incontrast,‘peda’trans- latesaschild,andpedagogy isorientedtoteachingchildren.According toForrest and Peterson (2006), while pedagogy focuses on issue of children, the andragogy putsprimacyontheissueofapplicationofknowledgetoreallife.Meanwhile,Yonge (1985)differentiatespedagogyandandragogybasedonthewayofaccompaniment. Forthisresearcher,pedagogyrefertochildrenbecomingadultsundertheguidance ofadults.Conversely,andragogyiswhereanadultguidesandassistsanotheradult toachieveamorerefinedaspectofadulthood. 4 A.B.IsmailandS.Sawang Nonetheless, neither andragogy nor pedagogy are teaching techniques. Forrest andPeterson(2006)arguedthatregardlessofwhetheritispedagogyorandragogy, thepointsistochooseappropriateinstructionalstrategiessuchasgroupdiscussions, lectures,andproblem-basedlearning.ThisisinlinewithRichardsonandBarbara’s (1995) argument that andragogy can be classed as active learning because of the learners,whotendtobeself-directed,haveavarietyofexperiences,bemotivatedby internalincentives,andhaveaproblem-centredorientationtolearning.Bycompar- ison,pedagogicallearnerscanbeclassifiedasthosewhoundergopassivelearning, that is, their learning is externally motivated and depends on decisions made by teachers. Yoshimoto et al. (2007) examine the concept of pedagogical and andra- gogicallearninginhighereducation.Theydescribedandragogyaslearner-focused (withmostofthelearnersbeingolderand/ormature),whilepedagogywasdescribed asbeingteacher-focused(withthelearnersusuallybeingyoungand/orimmature). Knowles (1980) highlighted six differences between pedagogy and andragogy in terms of self-concept, learner experience, readiness to learn, learning orienta- tion, motivation, and learning purpose. In the andragogical orientation, the adult learnersaredescribed asemphasizing aself-conceptof autonomy and learningby self-direction.Theyhaveconsiderablelifeexperience,andarereadytolearn.Their learningpurposeismotivatedbypersonalneed,andtheyareinterestedinlearning issues that relate to living better lives. In contrast, the pedagogical orientation is more dependent on the teacher and motivated by external rewards. Notwithstand- ing,StuartandHolmes(1982)arguedthatlearners’priorknowledge,pastlearning experiences,expectationandattitudestolearningdifferbetweenyoungandmature students.Thus,maturityisasignificantfactorinfluencingpreferencesforpedagogical orandragogicalorientations. Sinceadecadethatmosteducatorspreferredtouselecture,writtenexam,assign- ment and writing a business plan in teaching entrepreneurship education (Honig 2004;LourençoandJones2006;Chengetal.2009).Thisapproach(knownasthe traditionalapproachorsometimescalledthepassiveapproach)typicallydealswith thecontentsthatareeasytoverbalizeandcaptureinwritingsordrawings.Thecon- ceptualemphasisofthepassiveapproachcanbeimportanttothedevelopmentofa strongtheoreticalfoundationuponwhichstudentscanbuildinfuturecourses(Wing- fieldandBlack2005).Usually,byusingthisapproach,educatorscanpresentalarge amountofmaterialinarelativelybriefamountoftime,impartknowledge,andintro- ducebasicprinciplestolargeclassesofstudents.Thisisaone-waycommunication, alsoknownasteacher-centred,wheretheeducatortalkswhilsttheaudiencelistens. Conversely,theactiveapproachisaprocessofhavingstudentsengagedinsome activitythatforcesthemtoreflectuponideasandhowtheyusethoseideas(Michael 2006).Inessence,itiscommonlyknownasastudent-centeredapproach.Thismethod (whichsometimescalledtheinnovativeoraction-basedapproach)emphasizestheuse ofactionlearning,experientiallearningoramoreaction-basedapproach,wherethe studentismoreactiveandinitiatesthelearningprocess(WalterandDohse2012).This methodinvolvestwo-waycommunication,notonlybetweenthestudentsandedu- cators,butalsobetweenthestudentsthemselves.AccordingtoMicheletal.(2009), activelearningisaprocessinwhichstudentsengagein“doingthingsandthinking
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