Enemy Combatants, Terrorism, and Armed Conflict Law: A Guide to the Issues (Contemporary Military, Strategic, and Security Issues) PDF
Preview Enemy Combatants, Terrorism, and Armed Conflict Law: A Guide to the Issues (Contemporary Military, Strategic, and Security Issues)
Enemy Combatants, Terrorism, and Armed Conflict Law: A Guide to the Issues Edited by David K. Linnan PRAEGER SECURITY INTERNATIONAL ENEMY COMBATANTS, TERRORISM, AND ARMED CONFLICT LAW PraegerSecurityInternationalAdvisoryBoard BoardCochairs LochK.Johnson,RegentsProfessorofPublicandInternationalAffairs,SchoolofPublic andInternationalAffairs,UniversityofGeorgia(U.S.A.) Paul Wilkinson, Professor of International Relations and Chairman of the Advisory Board, Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence, University of St. Andrews(U.K.) Members Anthony H. Cordesman, Arleigh A. Burke Chair in Strategy, Center for Strategic and InternationalStudies(U.S.A.) The´re`seDelpech,DirectorofStrategicAffairs,AtomicEnergyCommission,andSenior ResearchFellow,CERI(FondationNationaledesSciencesPolitiques),Paris(France) SirMichaelHoward,formerChicheleProfessoroftheHistoryofWar,andRegisProfes- sorofModernHistory,OxfordUniversity,andRobertA.LovettProfessorofMilitaryand NavalHistory,YaleUniversity(U.K.) Lieutenant General Claudia J. Kennedy, USA (Ret.), former Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence,DepartmentoftheArmy(U.S.A.) PaulM.Kennedy,J.RichardsonDilworthProfessorofHistoryandDirector,International SecurityStudies,YaleUniversity(U.S.A.) RobertJ.O’Neill,formerChicheleProfessoroftheHistoryofWar,AllSoulsCollege, OxfordUniversity(Australia) Shibley Telhami, Anwar Sadat Chair for Peace and Development, Department of GovernmentandPolitics,UniversityofMaryland(U.S.A.) FareedZakaria,Editor,NewsweekInternational(U.S.A.) ENEMY COMBATANTS, TERRORISM, AND ARMED CONFLICT LAW A Guide to the Issues Edited by David K. Linnan PRAEGER SECURITY INTERNATIONAL Westport, Connecticut London • LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Enemycombatants,terrorism,andarmedconflictlaw:aguidetotheissues/editedbyDavidK.Linnan. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN–13:978–0–275–99814–1(alk.paper) 1. Terrorism—UnitedStates—Prevention.2. WaronTerrorism,2001—Lawandlegislation—UnitedStates. 3. Nationalsecurity—Lawandlegislation—UnitedStates.4. Civilrights—UnitedStates.5. Detentionof persons—UnitedStates.6. WaronTerrorism,2001—Lawandlegislation.7. Combatantsandnoncombatants (Internationallaw)8. War(Internationallaw) I.Linnan,DavidK.,1953- KF9430.E54 2008 343.73’01—dc22 2007040815 BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataisavailable. Copyright©2008byDavidK.Linnan Allrightsreserved.Noportionofthisbookmaybe reproduced,byanyprocessortechnique,withoutthe expresswrittenconsentofthepublisher. LibraryofCongressCatalogCardNumber:2007040815 ISBN–13:978–0–275–99814–1 Firstpublishedin2008 PraegerSecurityInternational,88PostRoadWest,Westport,CT06881 AnimprintofGreenwoodPublishingGroup,Inc. www.praeger.com PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica Thepaperusedinthisbookcomplieswiththe PermanentPaperStandardissuedbytheNational InformationStandardsOrganization(Z39.48–1984). 10987654321 Contents Introduction:Legitimacy,Religion,Ethics,andArmedConflictLawinContext 1 DavidK.Linnan PARTI: Media,Politics,andReligion 7 1 ThePress,thePresidency,andPublicOpinionsince9/11: 9 ShapingU.S.ForeignPolicyandMilitaryStrategy LowndesF.Stephens 2 MuslimPerspectivesontheInvasionofIraq: InformedPublics,Regime 37 Leaders,andIslamicJurists ShahroughAkhavi 3 ContestedMoralityinU.S.ForeignPolicy 51 JaniceLove PARTII:ConstitutionalandDomesticLaw: StructuralandInstitutionalEmphasis 65 4 ParadigmShifts,ExecutivePower,andtheWaronTerror 67 NormanC.Bay 5 PromotionofLiberalIslambytheUnitedStates 85 JohnH.Mansfield 6 The9/11CommissionReportandPublicDiscourseProject 92 MichaelHurley PARTIII:ConstitutionalandDomesticLaw: IndividualRightsEmphasis 105 7 InternationalLegalLimitsontheGovernment’sPowertoDetain 107 “EnemyCombatants” GeremyC.Kamens 8 MilitaryCommissions: AnOverview 121 H.WayneElliott vi Contents 9 War,Crime,orWarCrime?InterrogatingtheAnalogyBetweenWarandTerror 145 MiriamJ.Aukerman PARTIV:LawofArmedConflict: ReligionandArmedConflict 165 10 LegitimacyandAuthorityinIslamicDiscussionsof“MartyrdomOperations”/ 167 “SuicideBombings” A.KevinReinhart 11 WithaMightyHand: JudaicEthicsofExercisingPowerinExtraordinary 184 Warfare JonathanK.Crane 12 JesusandMars: ABriefIntroductiontotheChristianJustWarTradition 207 MichaelSkerker PARTV:LawofArmedConflictandInternationalLaw: OperationalLaw 221 13 RedefiningLegitimacy: LegalIssues 223 DavidK.Linnan 14 TheConceptofSuperiorResponsibilityunderInternationalLawasApplied 238 inIndonesia HikmahantoJuwana 15 The2006ConflictinLebanon,orWhatAretheArmedConflictRulesWhen 252 LegalPrinciplesCollide? GeorgeK.Walker 16 TheLegalWayAheadBetweenWarandPeace 280 KevinH.Govern PARTVI:LegalResponsibility,Justice,andReconciliation 305 17 DiscerningJusticeintheTrialandExecutionofSaddamHussein 307 JohnD.Carlson 18 IndividualResponsibility,Tribunals,andTruthandReconciliation 327 Commissions: AreWeAskingtheWrongQuestions? DavidK.Linnan Appendix 341 FurtherReading 381 Index 385 AbouttheEditorandtheContributors 397 INTRODUCTION Legitimacy, Religion, Ethics, and Armed Conflict Law in Context DAVID K. LINNAN Thechangingnatureofwaraffectsthelawofarmedconflict,atthesametimeasnational security has now developed an internal as well as an external aspect. Traditional wars between nation states are no longer the rule. The nonstate actor as a threat has gainedcredence(popularly,terrorismanditsclaimedbreedinggroundinfailedstates), linkedinpracticetoissuesofinterventionontheterritoryofstatesharboringsuchgroups. Inmilitarycircles,theideaofarmedstrugglebetweenmodernmilitaryforcesandwhatwere formerlycalledguerillashasnowlargelybeenreplacedbytheterminologyofasymmetric warfare and the concept of intelligence and preventive action interchangeably within U.S.bordersandoverseas.Andwhatarethenonmilitaryissuesoverseas,giventheaccepted wisdom that problems in Iraq and Afghanistan are not accessible to purely military solutions? Thegenesisofthisbookliesinanexaminationoflegitimacy,inthebroadestsense,in termsofreligion,ethics,andlawinconjunctionwitheventsinIraq,Afghanistan,andthe so-calledWaronTerror.Theconcernsshouldnotbeunderstoodintermsofwinningor losing,butratherwhattheytellusaboutourselves.Wecastthenetbroadlyinlookingat theissuesfromdifferingdomesticandforeign perspectives,because,unusuallyforthe UnitedStates, foreign events seemingly have forced theirway into our domestic lives. Withthedualperspectiveinmind,weinitiallyfocusonthedomesticissuesexpressedin constitutionallawterms,aswellassupportforU.S.foreign policy and publicopinion, whilesubsequentlyaddressingtheinternationalsidefromthearmedconflictlawandlegal responsibilityperspectives. The ultimate question may lie in where to strike the balance in opposing national security to individual liberties and the rule of law, both internationally and domesti- cally. We address the overlap between religion, ethics, armed conflict, and inter- national law as well as constitutional law in the context of ongoing events. Broader issuesarevisibleunderdomesticandinternationallawinareaslikeintelligence,recon- ciliation of civil liberties, dealing with nonstate actor threats, and the permissible bounds of interrogation, treatment of prisoners, and armed conflict law developments generally. 2 Enemy Combatants, Terrorism, and ArmedConflict Law Westartourexaminationoftheissuesonthedomesticside.InPartIcoveringmedia, politics,andreligion,LowndesStephenscommenceswithareviewofhowpublicopinion haschangedsinceSeptember11,2001.Helooksatpollingdataonthepublic’schanging viewovertimeoftheongoingconflictsinIraqandAfghanistanaswellastheWaron Terror,asitrelatestotheBushadministration’sperformanceinthepubliceye.Notsurpris- ingly,lessthanfavorabledevelopmentsinIraq,includingcasualties,standinaninverse relationship to the U.S. political leadership’s performance ratings. Stephens focuses primarilyondomesticpublicopinion,butcrossesoveralsointoforeignpublicopinion, particularlyunfavorablewithintheIslamicworld,throughthelensofpublicdiplomacy. Bycontrast,ShahroughAkhavithenexaminesviewswithintheMuslimworldexpressed chieflyintermsofgeneralpublicopinion,butcontraststhemalsowiththeparallelviewsof MiddleEasternpoliticalandreligiousleadership.Inthatsense,heislookingatU.S.public diplomacy’schallengesfromtheotherendofthetelescope.Thereissomeunderstanding forU.S.actionsinAfghanistan,buttheinvasionofIraqisperceivednegativelyagainst theMiddleEast’shistoricalexperienceofexternalintervention.AccordingtoAkhavi, whetherperspectivesimproveinthelongerrunwilldependonexitstrategies,aswellas theevolutionofsuchregionalissuesasthePalestinian–Israeliconflict. JaniceLovelooksfinallyatgroupswithintheU.S.religiouscommunity,specifically athowthemainlineChristiandenominationsversusevangelicalsandtelevangelistshave differed on the political level in their support for, and analysis under, various just war doctrines of the Bush administration’s actions in conjunction with Iraq, Afghanistan, andtheWaronTerror.TheBushadministration’ssupportfornonsocialpolicyinitiatives like Iraq, Afghanistan, and the War on Terror also has come from the religious right. Looking beyond politics, how much of this has to do with doctrinal, religious views? Beyondthejustwartradition,Loveexaminesasyetincompleteattemptsamongtheolo- gianstoarticulatedoctrinalalternativesontheuseofforceinthemodernworld.Allof this casts legitimacy in a different light domestically also, to the extent much of the U.S. Christian religious leadership, as moral leadership, have not actively supported U.S.militaryoperations,inIraqinparticular,as“justwar”inmoralterms. InPartIIcoveringstructuralandinstitutionalemphasesinconstitutionalanddomestic law,NormanBayfirstexploresthebasicparadigmshiftintermsofexecutivepower, intelligenceactivities,andtheWaronTerrorinparticular.Beyond9/11,communications and individual mobility have changed during the past dozen years in a fashion that renderedoutdatedoldercategoriesdifferentiatingsharplybetweenforeignanddomestic surveillance.Butcivillibertiesconcernsremainaconstant,andtheproblemishowto balancetheminachangedworld?BayspeaksasalawprofessorandformerU.S.Attorney, offeringanuancedviewofwhatwouldbelostiftherudderswingsovertoofartoward purelawenforcementconcerns. JohnMansfieldthenexplorestheissuethattheU.S.governmentistryingtoreachinto the Islamic world in a fashion that might run afoul of the first amendment’s religion clauses,bysupportingliberalIslamagainstperceivedreligiousextremism.Thisisimpor- tanttotheextenttheWaronTerrorisseenasalongerexerciserequiringengagementwith theIslamicworld.ButarethereconstitutionalconstraintsabroadiftheU.S.government supports institutions like religious schools? Or do foreign affairs and national security concernstrump traditionalAmerican concernaboutany governmentinvolvementwith religion? MichaelHurleyfinallyaddresses,fromtheperspectiveofthe9/11Commissionandits successor 9/11 Commission Public Disclosure Project, the unfinished business of Introduction 3 reforming intelligence oversightin the Congress. It is an intellectualcompanion piece to the Baychapter because of the conviction that, asthe legalauthority ofintelligence agenciesincreasesasaresultofpost-9/11reformlegislation(particularlyauthorization of domestic activities), unified and more effective oversight would both preserve civil liberties, and longer termincrease intelligence agencies’ effectiveness and legitimacy. The problem is that simply expanding executive authority is an insufficient answer to thechallengeofterrorism. PartIIIhasanindividualrightsemphasisinconstitutionalanddomesticlaw.Geremy KamensaslawyerforU.S.citizenYaserHamdi,whosecasereachedtheSupremeCourt, addressesinitiallythedisputedscopeoftheexecutivebranch’sauthoritytodetainindivid- uals,dependinguponwhethertheyweretakenintocustodyonthebattlefield(e.g.,Iraqor Afghanistan)orarrestedintheU.S.typicallyassuspectsintheWaronTerror.Thereare technical questions about combatant status and detentions in U.S. facilities versus at GuantanamoBay.Buttheunderlyingquestionmaybetheextenttowhichtheterminology ofa“war”onterrorismererhetoric(comparedtotherealarmedconflictstakingplacein Iraq and Afghanistan) versus having legal effect. The Supreme Court has shown little sympathythusfarfortheextremelybroadviewofexecutivepoweradvancedbytheBush administrationintheWaronTerror. H.WayneElliottthenlooksatmilitarycommissionsandGenevaConventionstatusof prisoners,particularlythoseincarceratedatGuantanamoBay,sinceoneofthequestions whichhasalreadyreachedtheSupremeCourtistheextenttowhichprisonerstakeninto custodyoverseas(sometimesonthebattlefield,butsometimesalsoapprehendedinthird countries)haverightstoahearingtoestablishwhethertheyareinfactcombatantsversus innocentbystanders.Thisisaproblemofmodernunconventionalwarfarewheresoldiers may nolonger wear brightly colored uniforms asmarkofdistinction.Butitrepresents equallythearticulationofrestraintsontheexecutive. MiriamAukermanfinallyfocusesonthe“war”onterrorweighingwhataretheimplica- tionsofconceptualizingterrorismasacriminalorlawenforcementproblem,versustreat- ing itasarmed conflict problem underthe traditional lawof war. Thereare distinctive legalconsequencesassociatedwithwhateverchoiceismade,but,bydeemingtheWaron TerrorawarwhiledenyingtheapplicabilityoftheGenevaConventions,Aukermansees theBushadministrationastryingtohaveitbothways.Ontheonehand,thefightagainst terrorismisawarforpurposesofjustifyingtheindefinitedetentionofsuspectedterrorists withouttrial,butisnotawarwhenitcomestoprotectingtherightsofthosewhohave beencaptured.Ontheotherhand,inprosecutingallegedterroristswhohaveviolatedthe law,butholdingothersindefinitelywherecriminalconductcannotbeproven,theBush administrationhasinvokedthecriminallawselectively.Aukermanconcludesthatterror- ismisbettertreatedascriminalproblem,whiletheanalysishighlightsthenatureofthe choicestobemade. Part IV moves the examination to the international side in addressing religion and armedconflict.Threescholarsofreligionwereaskedtoopineonaseriesofhypothetical problems drawing on current armed conflict issues under the Islamic, Jewish, and Christianethicaltraditions(e.g.,permissibilityoftortureofaterroristsuspectwithknowl- edgeofatickingtimebomb,ortargetedassassinations).Beyondthat,theywereleftto address the underlying issue of religious ethics and armed conflict as they best saw fit under individual religion traditions. A. Kevin Reinhart addresses issues surrounding modernIslamicreligiousauthorityinthecontextofthediscussionsof“martyrdomoper- ations”/“suicidebombings.”Thedualterminologyrevealsboththereligiousdimensions
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