Encyclopedia of world climatology PDF
Preview Encyclopedia of world climatology
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of WORLD CLIMATOLOGY edited by JOHN E. OLIVER Indiana State University A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 1-4020-3264-1 (HB) Springer Dordrecht,Berlin,Heidelberg,New York ISBN-10 1-4020-3266-8 (e-book) Springer Dordrecht,Berlin,Heidelberg,New York ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3264-6 (HB) Springer Dordrecht,Berlin,Heidelberg,New York ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3266-0 (e-book) Springer Dordrecht,Berlin,Heidelberg,New York Published by Springer PO Box 17,3300 AA Dordrecht,The Netherlands Printed on acid-free paper Cover photo:Camex 4 satellite image of Hurricane Fran in the Atlantic,27 August 2004. Photo credit:NASA. Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers,so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions. All Rights Reserved ©2005 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical,photocopying,microfilming,recording or othewise,without written permission from the Publisher,with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system,for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books,Bodmin,Cornwall Contents List of Contributors xi Arid Climates 85 Danny M. Vaughn Introduction xxi Aridity Indexes 89 Acid Rain 1 Stephen J. Stadler Melissa L. Kemling Art and Climate 94 Adiabatic Phenomena 4 Hans Neuberger and John E. Thornes Rhodes W. Fairbridge Asia,Climates of Siberia,Central and East Asia 102 Aerosols 4 William A. Dando Robert A. Duce Asia,Climate of South 115 Africa:Climate of 6 Y.Xue and M. Yanai John F. Griffiths Asia,Climate of Southwest 120 Agroclimatology 14 Heidi M. Cullen Claudia Wagner-Riddle Atmosphere 125 Airmass Climatology 16 Howard A. Bridgman Mark D. Schwartz and William T. Corcoran Atmospheric Circulation,Global 126 Air Pollution Climatology 21 John G. Lockwood Peyman Zawar-Reza and Rachel Spronken-Smith Atmospheric Nomenclature 134 Albedo and Reflectivity 32 Randall S. Cerveny Samuel N. Goward Atmospheric Nuclei and Dust 135 Aleutian Low 35 Robert W. Fenn Robert M. Hordon and Mark Binkley Australia and New Zealand,Climate of 137 Angular Momentum,Angular Velocity 36 Howard A. Bridgman Rhodes W. Fairbridge Azores (Bermuda) High 154 Antarctic Climates 37 Robert M. Hordon and Mark Binkley Andrew M. Carleton Beaufort Wind Scale 156 Applied Climatology 54 John R. Mather Stanley A. Changnon Bioclimatology 158 Archeoclimatology 58 A.R. Maarouf and R.E. Munn Reid Bryson Architecture and Climate 63 Blizzard Climatology 165 Vivian Loftness Robert M. Schwartz Arctic Climates 77 Blocking 167 Mark C. Serreze John E. Oliver vi CONTENTS Boundary Layer Climatology 168 Cloud Climatology 289 D.S. Munro Joel Norris Bowen Ratio 178 Coastal Climate 294 John E. Oliver R.A. Muller,H.J. Walker,and S.A. Hsu Budyko,Mikhail Ivanovich 179 Commerce and Climate 298 William A. Dando David Changnon Carbon-14 Dating 181 Condensation 302 Claudio Vita-Finzi John E. Oliver Centers of Action 182 Continental Climate and Continentality 303 Robert M. Hordon Richard Snow Central America and the Caribbean,Climate of 183 Coral Reefs and Climate 305 Michael A. Taylor and Eric J. Alfaro J.Kleypas Climate Affairs 189 Coriolis Effect 306 Michael H. Glantz Yuk Yee Yan Climatic Change and Ancient Civilizations 192 Masatoshi Yoshino Crime and Climate 307 James Lebeau Climate Change and Global Warming 199 Michael C. MacCracken Cultural Climatology 308 John Thornes Climate Change and Human Health 209 Anthony J. McMichael and Rosalie E. Woodruff Cycles and Periodicities 309 W.J.Burroughs Climate Change Impacts:Potential Environmental and Societal Consequences 213 Degree Days 315 Michael C. MacCracken Danny M. Vaughn Climate Classification 218 Desertification 318 John E. Oliver Michael H. Glantz Climate Comfort Indices 227 Deserts 324 Yuk Yee Yan Sharon E. Nicholson Climate Data Centers 231 Determinism,Climatic 333 Robert Mark Simpson Akhtar H. Siddiqi and John E. Oliver Climate Hazards 233 Dew/Dewpoint 336 Jack Hobbs John E. Oliver Climate Modeling and Research Centers 243 Robert Mark Simpson Doldrums 338 Joseph Gentilli Climate Variation:Historical 247 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Drought 338 Donald A. Wilhite Climate Variation:Instrumental Data 263 Enric Aguilar,Robert G. Quayle and Dynamic Climatology 341 J.Murray Mitchell Junior Glen A. Marotz Climate Vulnerability 266 Easterly Waves 346 Paul Kay John E. Oliver Climate Zones 270 Ekman (Spiral) Layer 347 John E. Oliver Rhodes W. Fairbridge Climatology 272 Electromagnetic Radiation 348 H.E. Landsberg/J.E. Oliver Rhodes W. Fairbridge Climatology,History of 283 El Niño 349 David H. Miller Michael H. Glantz CONTENTS vii Energy Budget Climatology 351 Howard,Luke 406 David Greenland Cameron Douglas Craig Europe,Climate of 355 Human Health and Climate 407 Keith Robert Boucher Laurence S. Kalkstein Evaporation 367 von Humboldt (Baron),Friedrich Heinrich Alexander 412 W.C. Swinbank Lisa M. Butler Harrington Evapotranspiration 370 Humid Climates 412 John E. Oliver James A. Henry Extratropical Cyclones 373 Humidity 413 Greg Bierly John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge Ferrel Cell 378 Hydroclimatology 415 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Wayne M. Wendland Flohn,Hermann 379 Hurricanes – Data and Data Sources 420 Cameron Douglas Craig John E. Oliver Fog and Mist 379 Ice Ages 422 John A. Day Rhodes W. Fairbridge Folklore,Myths and Climate 380 Icebergs and Heinrich Events 424 Randall S. Cerveny Rhodes W. Fairbridge Frost 381 Icelandic Low 428 Benjamin Moulton and John E. Oliver Robert M. Hordon Gentilli,Joseph 384 Indian Summer 429 John Dodson John E. Oliver Geomorphology and Climate 385 Intergovernmental Panel in Climate Change (IPCC) 429 Susan Berta John E. Oliver Global Environmental Change:Impacts 388 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 429 R.E. Munn and A.R. Maarouf Yuk Yee Yan Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gases 391 Inversion 432 A.J. Pitman John E. Oliver Hadley Cell 398 “ISO”Terms 433 John E. Oliver John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge Hadley,George 399 Jet Streams 435 Lisa M. Butler Harrington Elmar Reiter and Greg Bierly Hail 399 Katabatic (Gravity) Winds 440 Lewis G. Wixon D.S. Munro Hare,F. Kenneth 402 Kepler’s Laws 441 John Hay Rhodes W. Fairbridge Heat Index 403 Köppen,Wladimir Peter 441 Thomas W. Schlatter William A. Dando Heat Low 405 Krakatoa Winds 442 L.M. Trapasso Rhodes W. Fairbridge Holocene Epoch 405 Kyoto Protocol 443 Neil Roberts John E. Oliver Horse Latitudes 406 Lakes,Effects on Climate 444 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Thomas W. Schmidlin viii CONTENTS Lamb,Hubert H. 445 Monsoons and Monsoon Climate 509 Mick Kelly S.K. Dash Land and Sea Breezes 446 Montreal Protocol 516 Yuk Yee Yan John E. Oliver Landsberg,Helmut E. 447 Mountain and Valley Winds 516 Ferdinand Baer John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge Lapse Rate 448 Mountain Climates 517 Rhodes W. Fairbridge and John E. Oliver David Greenland Latent Heat 450 National Center for Atmospheric Research 524 David R. Legates Anon Lightning 451 National Climate Data Center/Data Sources 524 S. Ladochy John E. Oliver Literature and Climate 453 North America,Climate of 525 Christina Dando William T. Corcoran and Elias Johnson Little Ice Age 457 North American (Canadian) High 535 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Robert M. Hordon Local Climatology 460 North Atlantic Oscillation 536 Masatoshi Yoshino James W. Hurrell Local Winds 467 Ocean–Atmosphere Interaction 540 John E. Oliver G.R. Bigg The Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) 476 Ocean Circulation 547 John E. Oliver J.G. Harvey and J.E. Oliver Maritime Climate 477 Orographic Precipitation 552 John E. Oliver Donna Tucker Mather,John R. 479 Oscillations 555 Sandra F. Pritchard Mather John E. Oliver Maunder,Edward Walter and Maunder Minimum 480 Ozone 556 Patrick Moore and John E. Oliver J.Ben Liley Maury,Matthew Fontaine 481 Pacific (Hawaiian) High 562 Lisa M. Butler Harrington Robert M. Hordon Medieval Warm Period or “Little Climatic Optimum” 482 Pacific North American Oscillation (PNA) 563 Rhodes W. Fairbridge John E. Oliver Mediterranean Climates 485 Paleoclimatology 564 G. Jay Lennartson A.S. Goudie Microclimatology 486 Palmer Index/Palmer Drought Severity Index 571 W.G. Bailey James E. Newman and John E. Oliver Middle Latitude Climates 500 Phase Changes 573 Allen Perry John E. Oliver Milankovitch,Milutin 502 Precipitation 574 George Kukla and Rhodes W. Fairbridge Donna F. Tucker Military Affairs and Climate 503 Precipitation Distribution 576 Richard W. Dixon Orman E. Granger Models,Climatic 505 Pressure,Surface 583 Brian Hanson and Cort J. Willmott Brian D. Giles CONTENTS ix Pressure,Upper Air 588 Singularities 657 Brian D. Giles John E. Oliver Quasi-Biennial Oscillation 597 Snow and Snow Cover 658 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Ross D. Brown and David A. Robinson Radar,Climatic Applications 600 Solar Activity 663 David L. Arnold James H. Shirley Radiation Climatology 603 Solar Constant 666 Gerald Mills James H. Shirley Radiation Laws 611 Solar Flare 667 A. John Arnfield James H. Shirley Rainforest Climates 612 Solar Radiation 667 John J. Hidore L.J. Bruce McArthur Rainshadow 615 Solar Wind 673 L.M. Trapasso John E. Oliver Reanalysis Projects 615 South America,Climate of 673 Brian D. Giles Norys Jiminez and John E. Oliver Relative Humidity 617 Southern Oscillation 679 John E. Oliver Rhodes W. Fairbridge Religion and Climate 618 Sports,Recreation and Climate 682 William A. Dando Steve Stadler Rossby Wave/Rossby Number 625 Spring Green Wave 684 Jay R. Harman and John E. Oliver Mark D. Schwartz Satellite Observations of the Earth’s Climate System 629 Standard Atmosphere 686 Graeme L. Stephens John E. Oliver Savanna Climate 635 Statistical Climatology 687 John J. Hidore Scott M. Robeson Scales of Climate 637 Sunspots 694 A.A.L.N. Sarma Rhodes W. Fairbridge Sea Ice and Climate 639 Synoptic Climatology 700 John E. Walsh Roger G. Barry Sea Level Rise 641 Taiga Climate 705 Vivien Gornitz Mary Snow Seasonal Affective Disorder 644 Teleconnections 707 Michael D. Morgan Adam Burnett Seasonal Climate Prediction 646 Temperature Distribution 711 Peitao Peng L.M. Trapasso Seasonality:Astronomic Forcing 648 Terrestrial Radiation 716 Rhodes W. Fairbridge A. John Arnfield Seasons 651 Thornthwaite,Charles W. 717 Ted Alsop John R. Mather Sensible Heat 655 Thunder 718 David R. Legates Richard K. Cook Siberian (Asiatic) High 656 Thunderstorms 719 Robert M. Hordon Rodger A. Brown x CONTENTS Tornadoes 724 Vegetation and Climate 780 Edward Aguado and James E. Burt John R. Mather and Michael J. Brewer Tourism and Climate 730 Volcanic Eruptions and their Impact on the Allen Perry Earth’s Climate 788 S.L. de Silva Trade Winds and the Trade Wind Inversion 731 T.W.Giambelluca Vorticity 794 Greg Bierly Tree-Ring Analysis 732 Harold C. Fritts and James H. Speer Walker Circulation 797 John E. Oliver Tropical and Equatorial Climates 742 James Henry Water Budget Analysis 798 Robert A. Muller and John M. Grymes III Tropical Cyclones 750 Jay Hobgood Weather 805 John E. Oliver Troposphere 756 K. Dewey Wind Chill 805 Thomas W. Schlatter Tundra Climate 756 Mary Snow Wind Power Climatology 807 Steve Stadler and Tim Hughes Turbulence and Diffusion 759 Hans A. Panofsky Winds and Wind Systems 813 Robert C. Balling Jr. and Randall S. Cerveny Ultraviolet Radiation 762 A. John Arnfield Zonal Index 820 John E. Oliver Units and Conversions 763 John E. Oliver Index of Authors Cited 823 Urban Climatology 766 Subject Index 843 Anthony J. Brazel and Dale Quatrocchi Contributors Edward Aguado G.W. Bailey Department of Geography Department of Geography San Diego State University Simon Fraser University San Diego,CA 92182-4493,USA 8888 University Drive Burnaby,British Columbia V5A 156 Enric Aguilar Canada Climate Change Research Group e-mail:[email protected] Geography Unit Universitat Rovira I Virgili,Tarragona Robert C. Balling Spain Department of Geography e-mail:eaa@fll.urv.es Arizona State University Tempe,AZ 85281,USA Eric J. Alfaro e-mail:[email protected] Department of Physics University of the West Indies Roger Barry Mona,Kingston 7,Jamaica National Snow and Ice Data Center CIRES Ted Alsop Campus Box 449 Department of History and Geography University of Colorado Utah State University Boulder,CO 80309,USA Logan,UT 84321,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected] Susan Berta A. John Arnfield Department of Geography,Geology and Anthropology Department of Geography Indiana State University Ohio State University Terre Haute,IN 47809,USA Columbus,OH 43210-1361,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:John.Arnfi[email protected] Greg Bierly David L. Arnold Indiana State University Department of Geography Department of Geography Geology and Ball State University Anthropology Cooper Science Complex CL425 Terre Haute,IN 47809,USA Muncie,IN 47306,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected] G.R. Bigg Ferdinand Baer Department of Geography Department of Meteorology University of Sheffield University of Maryland Winter Street College Park,MD 20742,USA Sheffield S10 2TN,UK e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:Grant.Bigg@sheffield.ac.uk xii CONTRIBUTORS Mark Binkley W.J. Burroughs Department of Geography Squirrels Oak Rutgers University Clandon Road New Brunswick,NJ 08903,USA West Clandon,Surrey GU4 7UW,UK e-mail:[email protected] Keith Robert Boucher Department of Geography James E. Burt Loughborough University Department of Geography Loughborough,Leicestershire LE11 3TU,UK University of Wisconsin e-mail:[email protected] Madison,Wisconsin 53706,USA e-mail:[email protected] Anthony J. Brazel Arizona State University Lisa M. Butler Harrington Main Campus Department of Geography College of Liberal Arts and Sciences-Geography Dickens Hall P.O. Box 870104 Kansas State University Tempe,AZ 85287-0104,USA Manhattan,KS 66506,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected] Michael J. Brewer Andrew M. Carleton National Weather Service W/OS4 Department of Geography 11325 East West Highway The Pennsylvania University Silver Spring,MD 20910,USA University Park,PA 16802,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected] Howard A. Bridgman Randall S. Cerveny School of Environmental and Life Sciences Arizona State University University of Newcastle Department of Geography Newcastle,Australia 2308 Box 870104 e-mail:[email protected] Tempe,AZ 85287,USA e-mail:[email protected] Ross D. Brown Meteorological Service of Canada Stanley Changnon 2121 Trans Canada Highway 801 Buckthorn Circle Dorval,QC,H9P 1J3,Canada Mahomet,IL 61853,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected] Rodger A. Brown David Changnon National Severe Storms Laboratory Meteorology Program 1313 Halley Circle Department of Geography Norman,OK 73069,USA Northern Illinois University e-mail:[email protected] DeKalb,IL 60115,USA e-mail:[email protected] L.J. Bruce McArthur Meteorological Service of Canada Richard K. Cook 4905 Dufferin Street 8517 Milford Avenue Downsview,Ontario M3H 5T4,Canada Silver Spring,Maryland 20910,USA e-mail:[email protected] William T. Corcoran Reid Bryson Southwest Missouri State University University of Wisconsin Department of Geography,Geology and Planning Center for Climate Research Springfield,MO 65804-0089,USA Madison,WI 53706-1491,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected] Cameron Douglas Craig Adam Burnett Indiana State University Department of Geography Department of Geography,Geology and Colgate University Anthropology Hamilton,NY 13346,USA Terre Haute,IN 47809,USA e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected]
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