Table Of Content

Encyclopedia of the OTTOMAN empire Gábor Ágoston Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. Bruce Masters Wesleyan University, Connecticut i-xxxviii_Ottoman_fm.indd i 11/4/08 2:29:59 PM Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Copyright © 2009 by Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Masters All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ágoston, Gábor. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire / Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Masters. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-6259-1 ISBN-10: 0-8160-6259-5 1. Turkey—History—Ottoman Empire, 1288–1918—Encyclopedias. 2. Turkey— Civilization—Encyclopedias. I. Masters, Bruce Alan, 1950– I. Title. DR486.A375 2008 956'.01503—dc22 2008020716 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M. Toro, Erik Lindstrom Maps by Sholto Ainslie Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper and contains 30 percent postconsumer recycled content. C ONTENTS Editors and Contributors vii Alemdar Mustafa Pasha 29 B List of Illustrations and Aleppo 30 Baban family 70 Maps xvii Alexandrette 32 Baghdad 70 Alexandria 33 bailo 72 Acknowledgments xxi Algiers 33 Balkan wars 73 Note on Transliteration Ali Emiri Efendi 34 banks and banking 74 and Spelling xxiii Ali Kuşçu 35 Barbarossa brothers 77 Introduction xxv Âlî Pasha, Mehmed Emin 36 Barbary states 78 Ali Pasha of Janina 37 Basra 78 aliya 38 bathhouse 79 Entries A-Z Alliance Israélite Universelle 38 Bayezid I 80 A American Board of Bayezid II 82 Commissioners for Bedouins 84 Abbas I 1 Foreign Missions 39 Beirut 86 Abbas Hilmi 2 amir al-hajj 40 Bektaşi Order 88 Abbasid Caliphate 3 Anatolian emirates 40 Belgrade 89 Abd al-Qadir al-Jazairi 4 Anaza Confederation 42 Black Sea 89 Abduh, Muhammad 4 Anglo-Ottoman Convention 42 Bosnia and Herzegovina 91 Abdülaziz 5 Ankara, Battle of 43 Branković family 93 Abdülhamid I 5 Antioch 44 Bucharest, Treaty of 94 Abdülhamid II 6 Antun, Farah 44 Buda 94 Abdülmecid 9 Arabistan 45 budgets 96 Acre 9 Arab Revolt 45 Bulgaria 99 administration, central 10 architecture 46 Bulgarian National administration, provincial 13 Armenia 51 Awakening 102 Adriatic Sea 17 Armenian Apostolic Church 53 Bulgarian Orthodox al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din 18 Armenian Massacres 54 Church 103 agriculture 19 ashraf 55 Bursa 105 ahdname 21 Atatürk, Kemal 56 Büyük Süleyman Pasha 106 Ahmed I 22 Auspicious Incident 60 Byzantine Empire 107 Ahmed II 24 Austria 61 Ahmed III 24 ayan 64 C Ahmed Cevdet Pasha 26 Azak 67 Caffa 112 Alawi 27 al-Azhar 67 Cairo 112 Albania 28 al-Azm family 68 caliphate 114 iii i-xxxviii_Ottoman_fm.indd iii 11/4/08 2:29:59 PM iv Contents calligraphy 115 Dawud Pasha 177 Greek War of capitulations 118 death and funerary culture 177 Independence 240 caravan 119 debt and the Public Debt H caravansaray 120 Administration 180 Hagia Sophia 243 cartography 120 devşirme 183 hahambaşı 246 Caucasus 124 dhimmi 185 Haifa 246 Celali revolts 127 Dinshaway Incident 186 hajj 246 Cem 128 Dolmabahçe Palace 186 dragoman 188 Hama 248 censorship 130 Drava River 188 Hamidiye 249 ceramics 132 Druzes 189 harem 249 Cezzar Ahmed Pasha 134 Duwayhi, Istifanus 190 al-Hashimi, Faysal charity 135 ibn Husayn 251 coffee/coffeehouses 138 E al-Hashimi, Husayn ibn Ali 251 Committee of Union and Eastern Question 191 hayduk 252 Progress 139 economy and economic Hejaz 253 condominium 141 policy 192 Hejaz Railroad 253 Constantinople, conquest Edirne 195 historiography 253 of 142 Edirne, Treaty of 197 Hungary 255 constitution/Constitutional education 198 Periods 144 Hünkar Iskelesi, Treaty of 258 Egypt 204 contraband 145 Husayn-McMahon England 206 correspondence 259 conversion 145 enthronement and Copts 147 accession ceremony 207 I corsairs and pirates 148 Euphrates River 209 ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Cossacks 149 Evliya Çelebi 209 Muhammad 260 court and favorites 151 ibn Saud family 261 court chronicles 154 F Ibrahim I 262 court of law 156 fallah 211 Ibrahim Pasha 264 Cretan War 157 family 212 ihtisab and muhtesib 264 Crete 158 Farhi family 215 illustrated manuscripts Crimean Tatars 158 Fatih mosque complex 216 and miniature paintings 265 Crimean War 161 fatwa 217 illustrated manuscripts in Croatia 163 finances and fiscal structure 217 the Topkapı Palace Cromer, Lord 164 firearms 218 Museum 270 cuisine 165 Fondaco dei turchi 220 imperial ideology 273 Cyprus 165 France 221 intelligence 276 Fuad Pasha 225 Iran 278 D Iraq 282 Dalmatia 168 G Ismail, Khedive 283 Damascus 168 Galata 226 Ismail I 284 Damascus Incident 171 Gaza 228 Istanbul 286 Damascus Riots 172 Germany 228 Izmir 290 Danube Province 172 ghaza 231 Danube River 173 Gökalp, Ziya 232 J dar al-harb 174 Grand Bazaar 233 Jabal al-Druz 294 dar al-Islam 175 grand vizier 235 al-Jabarti, Abd al-Rahman 294 darülfünun 175 Greece 236 Jacobites 294 Davud Pasha 177 Greek Orthodox Church 238 Janbulad Ali Pasha 295 Contents v Janbulad family 296 Mahmud II 345 Mustafa Kamil 412 Janissaries 296 Malta 347 Mustafa Reşid Pasha 413 Jassy, Treaty of 298 mamluk 347 mutasarrafiyya 414 Jeddah 298 Mamluk Empire 348 N Jerusalem 299 markets 349 al-Nabulusi, Abd al-Ghani 415 Jews 300 Maronites 351 Nadir Shah 415 jizya 303 martolos 353 Nahda 416 Mawali Bedouin K Confederation 353 Najaf 416 kadı 304 Mecca 354 Najd 417 kadıasker 305 Mecelle 355 Namik Kemal 417 Kamaniçe 306 medicine 357 Napoleon Bonaparte 418 kanun 306 Medina 362 Naqshbandiyya Order 419 Karadjordje 307 Mehmed I 362 nationalism 420 Karaites 308 Mehmed II 364 navy 425 Karbala 308 Mehmed III 368 neomartyrs 429 Karlowitz, Treaty of 309 Mehmed IV 370 Nestorians 430 Katib Çelebi 310 Mehmed V 371 newspapers 431 al-Kawakibi, Abd Mehmed VI 371 Nizam-ı Cedid 434 al-Rahman 311 nomads 436 Mehmed Ali 372 Khayr al-Din Pasha 311 North Africa 438 Melkite Catholics 373 khedive 312 novel 439 menzil/menzilhane 374 Kızılbaş 312 merchant communities 375 O Knights of St. John 313 merchants 376 Köprülü family 313 Orhan Gazi 442 Mevlevi Order 377 Osman I 444 Kosovo, Battle of 317 Midhat Pasha 378 Osman II 446 Küçük Kaynarca, Treaty of 317 military acculturation 379 Osman III 447 Kurds 318 military slavery 382 Osman Pazvantoğlu 447 Kuwait 320 millet 383 Ottomanism 448 missionaries 384 L Özi 449 missionary schools 385 language and script 322 Mohács, Battle of 388 P Lausanne, Treaty of 323 Moldavia 389 palaces 451 law and gender 325 money and monetary Palace School 452 Lawrence, T.E. 328 systems 391 Palestine 452 Lebanese Civil War 329 Mosul 394 Pan-Islamism 453 Lebanon 329 Mühendishane 395 parliament 456 Lepanto, Battle of 331 mukataa 396 Phanariots 457 Levant Company 333 Murad I 396 Philiki Hetairia 458 libraries 333 Murad II 399 photography 459 Libya 336 Murad III 401 plague 462 literature, classical Ottoman 337 Murad IV 403 Poland 464 literature, folk 339 Murad V 404 political satire 465 literature, late Ottoman 340 music 404 population 467 Mustafa I 409 presidio 469 M Mustafa II 410 Prime Ministry’s Ottoman al-Maani, Fakhr al-Din 344 Mustafa III 411 Archives 469 Mahmud I 344 Mustafa IV 412 printing 471 i-xxxviii_Ottoman_fm.indd v 11/4/08 2:29:59 PM vi Contents Q Sharif of Mecca 527 U al-Qazdaghli household 475 Shaykh al-Balad 528 al-Ujaymi, Hindiyya 575 Shia Islam 528 Ukraine 576 R Shihab family 530 ulema 577 Ragusa 477 slavery 530 Uniates 578 railroads 478 Sobieski, Jan 533 Urabi, Ahmad Pasha 578 Rashid Rida, Muhammad 484 Sokollu family 534 Uskoks 579 reform 484 Spain 536 V reisülküttab 486 Suez Canal 538 relazione 487 Venice 581 Sufism 539 revolutionary press 487 Vienna, sieges of 583 Süleyman I 541 Rhodes 489 Vlachs 585 Süleyman II 547 Rifaiyya Order 489 Sunni Islam 548 W Russia 489 Svishtov, Treaty of 549 wagon fortress 587 Russo-Ottoman War of Sykes-Picot Agreement 550 Wahhabis 587 1768-74 492 Syria 550 Wallachia 588 Russo-Ottoman Wars 494 waqf 590 T S warfare 591 al-Tahtawi, Rifaat 551 Salafiyya 500 weights and measures 595 salname 501 takfir 551 Weizmann, Chaim 598 Salonika 502 Takiyüddin 552 World War I 598 Tanzimat 553 al-Sanusi, Muhammad 504 Y Tawfiq, Khedive 555 al-Sayyadi, Abu al-Huda 505 Yazidis 602 tax farming 555 sciences 506 Yemen 602 telegraph 557 Selim I 511 Young Ottomans 603 temettuat 558 Selim II 513 Young Turks 604 Selim III 514 Tersane-i Amire 559 Seljuks 515 Timur 562 Z Serbia 517 Timurids 563 Zahir al-Umar 607 Serbian Orthodox Church 519 tobacco 564 Zand, Karim Khan 608 Sèvres, Treaty of 520 Topkapı Palace 566 Zionism 608 sex and sexuality 522 trade 568 Ziya Pasha 609 şeyhülislam 524 Transylvania 570 Shabbatai Zvi 525 Tripoli (Lebanon) 571 Chronology 612 Shadhliyya Order 525 Tripoli (Libya) 572 Glossary 616 Shahrizor 526 tuğra 572 Bibliography 620 Shammar Bedouin 526 Tunis 573 sharia 526 Turkey 574 Index 624 i-xxxviii_Ottoman_fm.indd vi 11/4/08 2:29:59 PM E DITORS AND C ONTRIBUTORS EDITORS is the author of several books and articles on Ottoman architecture. Gábor Ágoston is associate professor at the Depart- ment of History of Georgetown University. His research Ali Akyıldız teaches at the history department of Mar- focuses on Ottoman economic and military history from mara University (Istanbul). He has been one of the edi- the 15th through 18th centuries, early modern Hungar- tors of the new Turkish-language Encyclopedia of Islam ian history, and on the comparative study of the Otto- (TDVİA) since 1997, and was a visiting professor at the man and Habsburg Empires. In addition to his five universities of London and Tokyo. His Turkish–lan- Hungarian–language books and numerous articles, he is guage publications include two books on the reforms in the author of Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the the Ottoman central government during the Tanzimat Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire. and on the introduction of paper money. His book on Ottoman Securities was published in both Turkish and Bruce Masters is the John Andrus Professor of History English. at Wesleyan University. He holds a Ph.D. in Near East- ern Studies from the University of Chicago. His publica- Hüseyin Al is board member of the Banking Regulation tions include Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab and Supervision Agency of Turkey. His research inter- World: The Birth of Sectarianism and The Origins of ests include the financial history of the Ottoman Empire Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mer- with particular reference to banks, banking, capital mar- cantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750. kets, and relation with international money markets in the 19th century. In addition to articles on the above CONTRIBUTORS topics, he has published two books in Turkish on inter- Erhan Afyoncu is assistant professor in the Department national capital and Ottoman finances in 1820–1875 and of History at Marmara University, Istanbul. He teaches on Ottoman foreign debts in 1854–1856. Ottoman political and military history in the 15th through 18th centuries. He has published three books in Zeynep Atbaş has been a curator of manuscripts at the Turkish, including a guidebook on how to conduct his- Topkapı Palace Museum since 1998. Her research inter- torical research regarding the pre-Tanzimat era. est concerns Islamic manuscripts and she has published several articles and papers on miniature paintings. Zeynep Ahunbay is professor of architecture and head of the Department on Restoration of Monuments at Cemil Aydın is assistant professor at the Department Istanbul Technical University, and former president of History, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, of ICOMOS Turkey (1999–2005). She teaches Otto- where he teaches courses on Middle Eastern and inter- man architectural history and conservation of cultural national history. His recent publications include Politics heritage. She has been involved in the restoration of of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in several war-damaged monuments in the Balkans. She Pan–Islamic and Pan–Asian Thought. vii i-xxxviii_Ottoman_fm.indd vii 11/4/08 2:29:59 PM viii Editors and Contributors Salih Aynural is professor of history at the Gebze Insti- Mustafa Budak is vice general director of the State tute of Technology, Turkey, where he teaches Ottoman Archives of Turkey and director of the Prime Ministry’s economic history. In addition to his articles in Turkish Ottoman Archives in Istanbul. His fields of research and English on the provisioning of Istanbul, he has pub- include the history of the Caucasus, the Crimean War, lished a book in Turkish on the Istanbul mills, millers, and Turkish foreign policy. In addition to his articles on and bakers in the 18th and 19th centuries. these subjects, he has published a Turkish-language book on Ottoman foreign policy before the Lausanne Peace Yakup Bektaş is an historian of technology with the Treaty. Tokyo Institute of Technology. His articles on the history of the Ottoman and American telegraph appeared Yücel Bulut is assistant professor at the Department of in Technology and Culture and in the British Journal for Sociology of Istanbul University. In addition to his Turk- the History of Science. ish-language book on the history of Orientalism, he has published numerous articles on contemporary Turkish Bestami S. Bilgiç is assistant professor at the Depart- thought and the history of Turkish sociology. ment of International Relations, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey. He teaches courses on political Baki Çakır was a researcher at the Research Center of history, Balkan history, and Turkish foreign policy. His the Istanbul Municipality, between 1995 and 2000. In research field is history and politics of the Balkans. He addition to his articles on Ottoman financial and institu- has published several articles on Turkish-Greek relations tional history, he has published a book in Turkish on the in the interwar period. Ottoman tax farming system in the 16th through 18th centuries. Ö. Faruk Bölükbaşı is a Ph.D. student at Marmara Uni- versity, Istanbul. His thesis focuses on the history of the Coşkun Çakır is associate professor at the University of Ottoman Imperial Mint. His book on Ottoman financial Istanbul. His research interests include Ottoman eco- administration in the time of Abdülhamid II was pub- nomic and social history. He is the author of two Turk- lished in Turkish. ish–language books on Ottoman fiscal policy during the Tanzimat era and on a 19th-century Anatolian city. Günhan Börekçi is a Ph.D. candidate in history at Ohio State University. His dissertation focuses on the Otto- Vanesa Casanova–Fernandez is a Ph.D. candidate in the man royal court and favorites during the reign of Sultan Department of History at Georgetown University. Her Ahmed I (r. 1603–1617). His article on the Janissaries’ dissertation examines the construction of ethno-religious volley fire tactic appeared in 2006. He is also the co–edi- identities and hegemonic masculinities on the Spanish- tor for the publication of Feridun Ahmed Bey’s illus- Moroccan frontier in the 17th through 19th centuries. trated chronicle on Sultan Süleyman’s last campaign in 1566. Tûba Çavdar is assistant professor in the Department of Information Management at Marmara University, Istan- İdris Bostan is professor in the Department of History bul. Her main field of research is the history of Ottoman at the University of Istanbul, and an expert on Ottoman libraries and books. Her book on the Rare Book Collec- maritime history. His publications in Turkish include tion of the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce Library was several monographs on the history of the Ottoman Naval recently published. Arsenal (Tersane-i Amire), Ottoman sailing and rowing ships, and the Aegean island under Ottoman rule. He is also co–author of A Short History of the Period of Otto- Yüksel Çelik is lecturer in the Department of History at man Sovereignty of the Aegean Islands, and The 1565 Marmara University, Istanbul, where he teaches courses Ottoman Malta Campaign Register. on Ottoman military history and reforms. His research interests include the Albanian National Awakening and Palmira Brummett is professor of history and distin- Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha’s political and military activities guished professor of humanities at the University of Ten- (1756–1855). nessee. She is the author of Image and Imperialism in the Ottoman Revolutionary Press, 1908–1911, and Ottoman Gökhan Çetinsaya is professor of history in the Depart- Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discov- ment of Humanities and Social Sciences at Istanbul ery. Her current projects concern the Ottoman Adriatic Technical University. His main fields of research are and early modern mapping, in narrative and image, of modern Turkish political history (19th and 20th centu- Ottoman space and sovereignty. ries), Turkish foreign policy, and the history of the Mid- i-xxxviii_Ottoman_fm.indd viii 11/4/08 2:30:00 PM Editors and Contributors ix dle East. He is the author of Ottoman Administration of Feridun M. Emecen is professor of history at the Uni- Iraq, 1890–1908. versity of Istanbul. His research and teaching interests include Ottoman chronicles, the history of the early David Cameron Cuthell Jr. is the executive director Ottoman state, institutions, and provincial administra- of the Institute of Turkish Studies in Washington D.C. tion, military, and urban history. He is the author of and visiting adjunct professor at Columbia and George- numerous articles, encyclopedia entries and books on town Universities. His research focuses on the 19th cen- early Ottoman history, the conquest of Constantinople, tury immigration of Muslims from the Caucasus and the Jews of Manisa, and the administrative and economic the Crimea and their role in transforming late Ottoman history of Manisa. Anatolia. Edhem Eldem is professor at the Department of His- Géza Dávid is professor and head of department in the tory of Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, and has taught Department of Turkish Philology at the University of as visiting professor at the University of California at Budapest. His research interests include Ottoman demo- Berkeley and at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences graphic and administrative history. Several of his articles Sociales, Paris. Among his fields of interest are foreign appeared in his Studies in Demographic and Administra- trade in the Levant in the 18th century, Ottoman funer- tive History of Ottoman Hungary. His recent publications ary epigraphy, the development of an urban bourgeoisie include two co-edited books (with Pál Fodor): Ottomans, in late 19th-century Istanbul, the history of the Imperial Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe, and Ran- Ottoman Bank, and late 19th-century Ottoman first- som Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders. person narratives and biographies. His publications include: French Trade in Istanbul in the Eighteenth Fatmagül Demirel is assistant professor at Yıldız Tech- Century; A History of the Ottoman Bank; The Ottoman nical University, Istanbul. Her research interests include City between East and West: Aleppo, Izmir and Istanbul legal and cultural history of the late Ottoman period. (with Daniel Goffman and Bruce Masters); and Death Her recent publications in Turkish include a mono- in Istanbul. Death and its Rituals in Ottoman–Islamic graph on Ottoman censorship under Abdülhamid II (r. Culture. 1876–1909). Sami Erdem is lecturer at the Divinity Faculty of Mar- M. Uğur Derman has studied with the famous cal- mara University, Istanbul and was a visiting scholar at ligrapher Necmeddin Okyay. He has published more the University of Jordan in 2005–2006. He has published than 400 articles and encyclopedia entries and numer- on the modern history of Islamic and Ottoman law, the ous books on Ottoman calligraphy and book culture, Mecelle, the Caliphate, and the modernization of law in including Calligraphy Ottoman (1990), Letters in Gold the Muslim world. He was the chief editor of the Turk- (1998), and The Art of Calligraphy in the Islamic Heri- ish-language journal Divan (Journal of Interdisciplinary tage (1998). Studies, 2003–2007), and the co-editor of the TALİD’s (Turkish Studies Review) special issue on the history of Mehmet Ali Doğan is a Ph.D. candidate at the Middle Turkish law. East Center of the University of Utah, where he studies American missionary activities in the Middle East in the Zeynep Tarım Ertuğ is associate professor in the history 19th century. He is the co-editor of a forthcoming book department at Istanbul University, where she teaches on American missionary enterprise in the Middle East in courses on Ottoman cultural history, visual sources, the 19th and 20th centuries. and the Ottoman imperial court. Her research interests include Ottoman manuscripts and miniatures, as well Kathryn Ebel is academic and administrative director as court ceremony. Her book in Turkish on Ottoman of Georgetown University’s McGhee Center for East- enthronement and funeral ceremonies in the 16th cen- ern Mediterranean Studies in Alanya, Turkey. She is a tury was published in 1999. specialist in the cartographic history of the Ottoman Empire, including city views, miniature paintings, and Şeref Etker is consultant pediatric surgeon and urologist other visual sources for the urban and historical geogra- at Zeynep-Kamil Hospital in Istanbul. His fields of inter- phy of the Ottoman world. Her articles have appeared in ests include the medical interaction between the vari- Imago Mundi and Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür Der- ous religious communities in the Ottoman Empire, and gisi. Her forthcoming book is titled City Views, Imperial modernization of Turkish military medicine. His articles Visions: Cartography and the Visual Culture of Urban were published in Studies in Ottoman Science, among Space in the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1603. others. i-xxxviii_Ottoman_fm.indd ix 11/4/08 2:30:00 PM