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Encyclopedia of Drugs, Alcohol, and Addictive Behavior 2nd ed Vol 3 PDF

429 Pages·2005·4.41 MB·English
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A B DDICTIVE EHAVIOR E of NCYCLOPEDIA D , A & RUGS LCOHOL A B DDICTIVE EHAVIOR Editorial Board EDITOR IN CHIEF Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, M.D. Durham, North Carolina EDITORS Kathleen M. Carroll, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychiatry Yale University School of Medicine Jeffrey Fagan, Ph.D. Professor of Public Health Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University Henry R. Kranzler, M.D. Professor of Psychiatry University of Connecticut School of Medicine Michael J. Kuhar, Ph.D. Georgia Research Alliance Eminent Scholar and Candler Professor Yerkes Regional Primate Center A B DDICTIVE EHAVIOR E of NCYCLOPEDIA D , A & RUGS LCOHOL A B DDICTIVE EHAVIOR SECOND EDITION VOLUME 3 R – Z ROSALYN CARSON-DEWITT, M.D. Editor in Chief Durham, North Carolina Copyright © 2001 by Macmillan Reference USA, an imprint of the Gale Group All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Reference USA Macmillan Reference USA An imprint of the Gale Group An imprint of the Gale Group 1633 Broadway 27500 Drake Rd. New York, NY 10019 Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Printed in the United States of America printing number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of drugs, alcohol, and addictive behavior / Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, editor-in-chief.–Rev. ed. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: Encyclopedia of drugs and alcohol. c1995. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-02-865541-9 (set) ISBN 0-02-865542-7 (Vol. 1) ISBN 0-02-865543-5 (Vol. 2) ISBN 0-02-865544-3 (Vol. 3) ISBN 0-02-865545-1 (Vol. 4) 1. Drug abuse–Encyclopedias. 2. Substance abuse–Encyclopedias. 3. Alcoholism–Encyclopedias. 4. Drinking of alcoholic beverages–Encyclopedias. I. Carson-DeWitt, Rosalyn II. Encyclopedia of drugs and alcohol. HV5804 .E53 2000 362.29'03–dc21 00-046068 CIP This paper meets the requirements of ANSI-NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) (cid:1)oo™ R RACIAL PROFILING ‘‘Profiles,’’ formal percentofthosestoppedandsearchedonNewJer- and informal, are common in law enforcement, sey highways are African American or Hispanic, particularly in narcotics law enforcement. They even though, according to one expert, only 13.5 consist of general characteristics and features that percent of the drivers and 15 percent of the might make a law enforcement officer suspicious. speeders on those highways are African American In some instances, law enforcement agencies for- orHispanic.AnOrlandoSentinelanalysisof1,000 mulate and disseminate formal profiles to officers videotapes of Florida state trooper traffic stops in toguidetheirinvestigativeactions.Evenwhenpro- 1992showedthatonaroadwhere5percentofthe filesarenotformallymaintained,however,officers driverswereAfricanAmericanorHispanic,70per- inevitablyrelyontheirpastexperiencetogenerate cent of those stopped and 80 percent of those informal profiles for whom to follow more closely, searched by the Florida state police were African approach, stop, or question. There is nothing American or Hispanic. wrong with profiling as a general practice, but Racialtargetingneednotbeexpresslyinvitedby when race becomes a factor in a profile, serious a profile. Consider, for example, the U.S. Drug constitutional and ethical issues arise. Enforcement Agency’s (DEA) drug courier profile Racial profiling is the use of racial generaliza- for airports. All the factors listed below have been tionsorstereotypesasabasisforstopping,search- identifiedbyDEAagentsincourttestimonyaspart ing, or questioning an individual. Racial profiling received a great deal of attention in the United of the DEA’s drug courier profile: States in the late 1990s as a result of a series of arrived late at night prominentincidentsandthereleaseofdataonpo- arrived early in the morning lice practices from several jurisdictions. The data arrived in afternoon consistently showed that African Americans and one of first to deplane Hispanics are disproportionately targeted by law one of last to deplane enforcement for stops, frisks, and searches. Court deplaned in the middle recordsshowed,forexample,thatinMarylandAf- rican Americans made up 70 percent of those bought coach ticket stoppedandsearchedbytheMarylandStatePolice bought first-class ticket from January 1995 through December 1997, on a used one-way ticket road on which 17.5 percent of the drivers and use round-trip ticket speederswereAfricanAmerican.A1999reportby paid for ticket with small denomination cur- the New Jersey Attorney General found that 77 rency 947 948 RACIAL PROFILING paid for ticket with large denomination cur- sions(eitherbecausetherewasnoarrestorindict- rency ment, or because the defendant pleaded guilty)— made local telephone call after deplaning the statistics are so one-sided as to raise serious made long-distance telephone call after questions about racial targeting. deplaning Although statistical data alone do not conclu- pretended to make telephone call sivelyestablish thatofficersare engaged in‘‘racial traveled from New York to Los Angeles profiling,’’ they provide strong circumstantial evi- traveled to Houston dence. Many police officers, moreover, admit that carried no luggage all other things being equal, they are more suspi- carried brand-new luggage cious of, for example, young African-American carried a small bag menthanelderly white women.Norissuchthink- carried a medium-sized bag ing irrational. Criminologists generally agree that carried two bulky garment bags young African-American men are more likely to carried two heavy suitcases commit crime than elderly white women, because carried four pieces of luggage at least with respect to some crime, young people overly protective of luggage commit more crime than old people, men commit disassociated self from luggage more crime than women, and African Americans traveled alone commit more crime than whites. Indeed, it is pre- traveled with a companion ciselybecausetheuseofraceasageneralizationis acted too nervous not irrational that racial profiling is such a wide- acted too calm spread phenomenon. made eye contact with officer In some areas, however, there is evidence that avoided making eye contact with officer theuseofracialprofilesisirrational.Thestrongest wore expensive clothing and gold jewelry evidence is with respect to drug law enforcement. dressed casually Much of the racial profiling that occurs onthe na- went to restroom after deplaning tion’shighwaysisconductedfordruglawenforce- walked quickly through airport ment purposes. Officers use the pretext of a traffic walked slowly through airport infractiontostopacarandthenaskforconsentto search the car for drugs. This tactic has been ex- walked aimlessly through airport pressly approved by the U.S. Supreme Court. left airport by taxi Yet studies show that officers get virtually the left airport by limousine same‘‘hitrates’’forwhitesandAfricanAmericans left airport by private car whenthey conduct trafficstops fordrugs.Inother left airport by hotel courtesy van words, officers are no more likely to find drugs on suspect was Hispanic an African-American driver than a white driver. suspect was African-American female Consistent with these results, the U.S. Public Even without the last two factors, this profile Health Service has found, based on confidential describessomanytravelersthatitdoesnotsomuch self-report surveys, that African Americans and focus an investigation as provide DEA officials a whitesuseillegaldrugsinroughproportiontotheir ready-made excuse for stopping whomever they representationinthepopulation atlarge. In1992, please.ALexisreviewofallfederalcourtdecisions for example, 76 percent of illegal drug users were fromJanuary1,1990toAugust2,1995,inwhich whiteand14percentwereAfricanAmerican.Since drugcourierprofileswere usedandtheraceofthe most users report having purchased drugs from a suspectwasdiscernible,revealedthatofsixty-three dealer of the same race, drug dealing is also likely such cases, all but three suspects were minorities: to be fairly evenly represented demographically. thirty-four were African-American, twenty-five Thus, the supposition that African Americans are were Hispanic, one was Asian, and three were morelikely tobecarrying drugsissharplycontra- white. While this is not a scientific sampling—it dicted by the data. does not include cases in which the race of the Inanyevent,evenwheredemographicdatasug- suspect could not be discerned, and it does not geststhatthepracticeofracialprofilingmaynotbe include cases that did not result in judicial deci- irrational, it is both unconstitutional and unwise. RATIONAL AUTHORITY 949 Because of the pernicious history of racial classifi- lating that racial profiling is impermissible: Pre- cations in the United States, the Supreme Court cisely because racial profiling is deeply embedded forbidsofficial relianceonracialgeneralizations— in the culture and not always irrational, police evenaccurateones—exceptwhenthereisnoother officers are likely to continue to do it unless the way to achieve a compelling government end.The practice is clearly prohibited. And the third step usual argument police officers advance in defense will require effective monitoring and discipline. It ofprofilingisthatitrecognizestheunfortunatefact remains to be seen whether racial profiling can be thatminoritiesaremorelikelythanwhitestocom- halted effectively. mit crime. Butwhile thismay be truewith respect to some crimes, the generalizations are hopelessly BIBLIOGRAPHY overinclusiveevenastothosecrimes.Thefactthat African Americans are more likely than whites to COLE,D.(1999).Noequaljustice:Raceandclassinthe engage in violent crime, for example, does not Americancriminaljusticesystem.NewYork,NY:New meanthatmostAfricanAmericanscommitviolent Press. crime. Most African Americans, like most whites, HARRIS,D.(1999).Drivingwhileblack:Racialprofiling do not commit any crime; annually, at least 90 onournation’shighways.New York,NY:American percent of African Americans are not arrested for Civil Liberties Union. anything. On any given day, the number of inno- HARRIS, D. (1999). The stories, the statistics, and the centAfricanAmericansisevenhigher.Inaddition, law:Whydrivingwhileblackmatters,MinnesotaLaw whenofficersfocusonminorities,theylosesightof Review, 84(2), 265–326. white criminals. Race is a terribly inaccurate indi- DAVIDD. COLE cator of crime. Most important, relying on race as a factor for suspicionviolatesthefirstprincipleofcriminallaw: RATIONAL AUTHORITY Drug addicts individual responsibility. The state’s authority to takeitscitizens’liberty,andinextremecases,lives, are reported to have a low tolerance for ANXIETY. As a result, few are able to voluntarily sustain an turns on the premise that all are equal before the extendedperiodofdrugtreatment,whichisneces- law. Racial generalizations fail to treat people as saryformeaningfulintervention.Instead,theytend individuals.Asaresult,policiesthattolerateracial to disengage themselves from treatment programs profiling undermine the criminal law’s legitimacy. once the anxiety has been brought to the surface As any good leader knows, and many crimino- (Brill&Lieberman,1969).‘‘Rationalauthority,’’a logistshaveconfirmed,legitimacyiscentraltoget- ting people to follow the rules. If people believe in late1960seuphemismformandatory(butnotnec- the legitimacy and fairness of the system, they are essarily punitive) treatment, became a basis for muchmorelikelytoabidebytherulesthanifthey holdingaddictsinalong-termtreatmentprogram. seethesystemasunjust.Thus,racialprofilingmay The philosophy behind rational authority jus- indeed contribute to crime by corrodingthelegiti- tifies the development of coercive mechanisms or macy of the criminal law. strategies that permit assigning to treatment those Effortstohaltracialprofilingarenowinplacein addicts who ordinarily would not voluntarily seek many American jurisdictions. In 1999, President assistance. Rehabilitation programs based upon Clinton ordered all federal agencies to study their this philosophy derive their legitimate coercive law enforcement practices to root out racial pro- powers through the authority of the courts. The filing, and several states and cities—including authority is considered rational because it is uti- North Carolina, Connecticut, Florida, Houston, lizedinahumaneandconstructivemanner,andit and San Diego—have required reporting on the does this by relating the means of authority to the racialpatterns oflawenforcement.Suchreporting ends of rehabilitation. isthefirststeptowardendingthepractice,because This conceptualization represents an evolution- as long as records of police practices are neither arychangefromtheemphasisontheuseofauthor- keptnormadepublic,thenatureandextentofthe ity as a punitive end in itself. Rational authority problem will be hidden. The second step requires alsosuggestscombiningtheauthorityoftheproba- clearstatementsbylawenforcementofficialsstipu- tion or parole officer with the techniques of social 950 RATIONAL RECOVERY (RR) casework.Assuch, authoritybecomesameansfor An RR ‘‘coordinator’’ leads a group of five to the officer or associated rehabilitation worker to ten members, who meet once or twice weekly for implementdesiredbehavioralchanges.Inaddition ninety minutes. Each coordinator maintains con- to being required to obey the usual conditions of tact with an adviser, a mental-health professional probation, addicts can be involuntarily held in a familiar with the RR program. RR emphasizes therapeuticsettinguntiltheyhaveacquiredatoler- cognitive devices for securing abstinence, such as anceforabstinenceandtheconditioningprocesses discussionof‘‘theBeast,’’atermusedtopersonify thoughttomaintainaddictionhavebeenreversed. the compulsive thoughts that drive an individual to drink. Members use a ‘‘Sobriety Spreadsheet’’ Evaluations of programs in New York, California, onwhichtheywriteoutirrationalbeliefsthatacti- and Pennsylvania that are based upon rational vate their desire to drink. They also read authority indicate that when addicts are thus su- Trimpey’s The Small Book to develop the proper pervised, they are often less likely to relapse into attitudetowardabstinence.Thesedevicesareused addictive behavior (Brill & Lieberman, 1969). in RR meetings as well as outside to examine vul- nerabilitytodrinkingandtoovercomeit.Atmeet- (SEEALSO: California Civil CommitmentProgram; ingstheseissuesarealsoaddressedinalessformal Civil Commitment; Coerced Treatment for Sub- way in ‘‘cross-talk,’’ an open, face-to-face ex- stance Offenders; Contingency Management; New change among participants. York State Civil Commitment Program; Treatment RRdiffersfromAAinthatitdoesnotencourage Alternatives to Street Crime Treatment/Treatment supportive exchanges and phone calls between Types) meetings, nor does the enrollee solicit a sponsor among established members. Also in contrast to BIBLIOGRAPHY AA, there is no equivalent of ‘‘working’’ the TWELVESTEPS,andaspiritualorreligiousorienta- BRILL,L.,&LIEBERMAN,L.(1969).Authorityandaddic- tiontotreatmentisexplicitlyeschewed.LikeSECU- tion. Boston: Little, Brown. LAR ORGANIZATIONS FOR SOBRIETY (SOS), RR en- LEUKEFELD, C.G., & TIMS, F.M. (EDS.). (1988). Com- courages study of its methods and outcome. One pulsorytreatmentofdrugabuse:Researchandclini- such study by Galanter and coworkers sent fol- cal practice (NIDA Research Monograph 86). Rock- low-up questionnaires to seventy RR groups in ville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human nineteen states and received sixty-three responses. Services. Ninety-seven percent of participants in the re- HARRYK. WEXLER sponding groups filled out questionnaires. They were mostly men about forty-five years old, each with about a twenty-five-year history of alcohol problems. The majority were employed, had at- RATIONAL RECOVERY (RR) Rational tended college, and had heard about the program Recovery (RR) is one of a number of self-help throughthemediaorbywordofmouth.Amajority movements that have emerged as alternatives to had used marijuana, a substantial minority had ALCOHOLICSANONYMOUS(AA)forthosewithdrug also used cocaine, and a small minority had used and alcohol problems. Rational Recovery began heroin. withthepublicationofRationalRecoveryfromAl- At the time of the study (the early 1990s), RR coholism: The Small Book by Jack Trimpey in wasamuchyoungerorganizationthanAA.Mostof 1988. The program is based on Rational Emotive the coordinators had been members for only nine Therapy, a mental-health treatment with a cogni- months,mostgroupshadbeenmeetingforabouta tive orientation developed by the psychologist year, and the implementation of the movement’s Albert Ellis. It is premised on the assumption that specifictechniques(useoftheSobrietySpreadsheet psychological difficulties are caused by irrational and discussion of ‘‘the Beast’’) was not consistent. beliefs that can be understood and overcome, not Nevertheless, the members’ commitment to the by existential or spiritual deficits. The emphasis is central tenet of the movement, sobriety, was con- on rational self-examination rather than on siderable. Although 75 percent had previously at- religiosity. tendedAAmeetings,themajority(82%)ratedRR RAVE 951 principles higher than AA principles in helping them achieve sobriety. However, it seems quite likelythatRRbenefitsconsiderablyfromtheexpe- rience these former AA members bring with them. A sizable percentage of RR participants who re- turned questionnaires were involved with mental- health care as well as with RR. Thirty-six percent had seen a psychotherapist the week before the survey,and21percentwerecurrentlytakingmedi- cation prescribed for psychiatric problems. Many group coordinators had formal mental-health training, and 24 percent had graduate degrees or certificatesinmentalhealth.Itislikelythat,justas AAderivessomelegitimacyfromitsspiritualroots, Dancers take to the crowded, smoky dance floor RRderivessomeofitsinfluencefromthecredibility at an all-night rave at Groove Jet in Miami oftheprofessionalpsychologywithwhichitisasso- Beach, September 24, 1999. (APPhoto/Greg ciated. Without carefully controlled studies that Smith) adjust for differences in patient backgrounds, it is hazardoustocompareoutcomestudiesfromRRto the late 1980s when all-night parties and Detroit studiesofAAandotherself-helpgroups.Thedata techno music sprangupin theUnited Kingdomto thatdoexist, however,tentatively suggestthatRR form the phenomenon that is still a social concern may do at least as well. today. Raves are held in a variety of locales, from An RR group can be formed at no cost by a traditional nightclubs to warehouses to open pas- recovering substance abuser in consultation with tures (sometimes without the knowledge of the theexecutiveofficeoftheRationalRecoverymove- owners). A major part of the attraction of raves is ment (Box 800, Lotus, California 95651). the permissive, underground atmosphere. Ravers, whoaremoreoftenthannotintheirlateteensand (SEE ALSO: Sobriety; Treatment Types: Self-Help earlytwenties,enjoythefreedomfromsupervision and Anonymous Groups) that is common at raves. Hedonism or ‘‘pleasure seeking’’ is also of cen- BIBLIOGRAPHY tralvalueinraveculture,andthiscorrelateswitha GALANTER, M., EGELKO, S., & EDWARDS, H. (1993). highincidence ofdruguse. Manyraversfreelyad- Rational Recovery: Alternative to AA for addiction? mit to the presence of various club drugs on the American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 19, ravescene,particularlyMETHAMPHETAMINE(meth, 499–510. crank, crystal, speed or whizz) and MDMA (E, X, GELMAN,D.,LEONARD,E.A.,&FISHER,B.(1991).Clean ecstasy, or rolls) although others such as andsoberandagnostic.Newsweek,July8,pp.62–63. ROHYPNOL,GHB,LSD,andKETAMINEhaverecently TRIMPEY, J. (1988). Rational recovery from alcoholism: gained more attention in the media as club drugs. The small book. Lotus, CA: Lotus Press. Intruth,polydrugabuseiscommonenoughonthe MARCGALANTER rave scene that no list ofdrugscanbe regarded as comprehensive. Ravers tend to regard the drugs theyuseasnewerandsaferthan‘‘older’’drugslike RAVE A rave is a large, typically overnight HEROIN and PCP. This is rarely true insofar as dance party with a focus on techno and related safetyisconcerned.Raveshavecertainlyseentheir formsofmusic.Theraveprovidesavenueforinno- shareofdrugcasualties,andarecauseforconcern vativemusicalformsandfashionsaswellasforthe because of the high incidence of drug problems use and abuse of a variety of drugs known collec- among ravers. tivelyasCLUBDRUGS.Ravesandthe‘‘ravers’’who attendthemhavebeenapartofyouthculturesince RICHARDG. HUNTER

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Encyclopedia of drugs, alcohol, and addictive behavior / Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, editor-in-chief.–Rev. ed. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: Encyclopedia of drugs
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