Encyclopdia Britannica Volume XII Slice VIII Haller Albrecht to Harmonium

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8
"Haller, Albrecht" to "Harmonium"

Author: Various

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XII SLICE VIII

Haller, Albrecht to Harmonium

Articles in This Slice

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON
HANDICAP

HALLER, BERTHOLD
HANDSEL

HALLEY, EDMUND
HANDSWORTH

HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS
HANDWRITING

HALLIDAY, ANDREW
HANG-CHOW-FU

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES
ORCHARD

HANGING

HALLOWE’EN
HANGÖ

HALLSTATT
HANKA, WENCESLAUS

HALLUCINATION
HANLEY

HALLUIN
HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO

HALM, CARL FELIX
HANNAY, JAMES

HALMA
HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN

HALMAHERA
HANNIBAL (Carthaginian statesman)

HALMSTAD
HANNIBAL (Missouri, U.S.A.)

HALO
HANNINGTON, JAMES

HALOGENS
HANNINGTON

HALS, FRANS
HANNO

HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY
GIFFARD

HANOI

HALSTEAD
HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL

HALT
HANOVER (province of Prussia)

HALUNTIUM
HANOVER (city of Prussia)

HALYBURTON, JAMES
HANOVER (Indiana, U.S.A.)

HALYBURTON, THOMAS
HANOVER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)

HAM (son of Noah)
HANOVER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)

HAM (town of France)
HANRIOT, FRANÇOIS

HAMADĀN
HANSARD, LUKE

HAMADHĀNĪ
HANSEATIC LEAGUE

HAMAH
HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS

HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG
HANSI

HAMAR
HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS

ḤAMĀSA
HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES

HAMBURG (German state)
HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER

HAMBURG (German seaport)
HANTHAWADDY

HAMDĀNĪ
HANUKKAH

HAMELIN, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE
HANUMAN

HAMELN
HANWAY, JONAS

HAMERLING, ROBERT
HANWELL

HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT
HAPARANDA

HAMI
HAPLODRILI

HAMILCAR BARCA
HAPTARA

HAMILTON
HAPUR

HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES
OF

HARA-KIRI

HAMILTON, ALEXANDER
HARALD

HAMILTON, ANTHONY
HARBIN

HAMILTON, ELIZABETH
HARBINGER

HAMILTON, EMMA
HARBOUR

HAMILTON, JAMES
HARBURG

HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON
HARCOURT

HAMILTON, JOHN
HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT

HAMILTON, PATRICK
HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE VENABLES
VERNON

HAMILTON, ROBERT
HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON

HAMILTON, THOMAS
HARDANGER FJORD

HAMILTON, WILLIAM
HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856)
HARDERWYK

HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD
HARDICANUTE

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN
HARDING, CHESTER

HAMILTON (town of Australia)
HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD

HAMILTON (river of Canada)
HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE

HAMILTON (city of Canada)
HARDOI

HAMILTON (burgh of Scotland)
HARDOUIN, JEAN

HAMILTON (New York, U.S.A.)
HARDT, HERMANN VON DER

HAMILTON (Ohio, U.S.A.)
HARDT, THE

HAMIRPUR
HARDWAR

HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES
HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE

HAMLET
HARDY, ALEXANDRE

HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE
HARDY, THOMAS

HAMLIN, HANNIBAL
HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS

HAMM
HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN

HAMMĀD AR-RĀWIYA
HARDYNG, JOHN

HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS
HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT

HAMMER
HARE, SIR JOHN

HAMMERBEAM ROOF
HARE, JULIUS CHARLES

HAMMERFEST
HARE

HAMMER-KOP
HAREBELL

HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH
HAREM

HAMMERSMITH
HARFLEUR

HAMMER-THROWING
HARIANA

HAMMER-TOE
HARINGTON, SIR JOHN

HAMMOCK
ḤARĪRĪ

HAMMOND, HENRY
HARI-RUD

HAMMOND
HARISCHANDRA

HAMON, JEAN LOUIS
ḤĀRITH IBN ḤILLIZA UL-YASHKURĪ

HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM
BRAND

ḤARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON

HAMPDEN, JOHN
HARKNESS, ALBERT

HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON
HARKNESS, ROBERT

HAMPDEN-SIDNEY
HARLAN, JAMES

HAMPSHIRE
HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL

HAMPSTEAD
HARLAND, HENRY

HAMPTON, WADE
HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE

HAMPTON (Middlesex, England)
HARLECH

HAMPTON (Virginia, U.S.A.)
HARLEQUIN

HAMPTON ROADS
HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH

HAMSTER
HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON

HANAPER
HARLINGEN

HANAU
HARMATTAN

HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES
HARMODIUS

HANCOCK, JOHN
HARMONIA

HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT
HARMONIC

HANCOCK
HARMONICA

HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF
HARMONIC ANALYSIS

HAND
HARMONICHORD

HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK
HARMONIUM

HANDFASTING

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, was born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on

the 16th of October 1708. Prevented by long-continued ill-health from taking part in boyish sports, he had the more opportunity
for the development of his precocious mind. At the age of four, it is said, he used to read and expound the Bible to his father’s

855

servants; before he was ten he had sketched a Chaldee grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, compiled a
collection of two thousand biographies of famous men and women on the model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and
written in Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against a too great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was
already the author of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, Horace and Virgil, as well as of original lyrics, dramas, and an
epic of four thousand lines on the origin of the Swiss confederations, writings which he is said on one occasion to have rescued
from a fire at the risk of his life, only, however, to burn them a little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller’s attention had been
directed to the profession of medicine while he was residing in the house of a physician at Biel after his father’s death in 1721; and,
following the choice then made, he while still a sickly and excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to the university of
Tübingen (December 1723), where he studied under Camerarius and Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, he in 1725
exchanged Tübingen for Leiden, where Boerhaave was in the zenith of his fame, and where Albinus had already begun to lecture
in anatomy. At that university he graduated in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove that the so-called salivary
duct, claimed as a recent discovery by Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then visited London, making the
acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Pringle, Douglas and other scientific men; next, after a short stay in Oxford, he
visited Paris, where he studied under Ledran and Winslöw; and in 1728 he proceeded to Basel, where he devoted himself to the
study of the higher mathematics under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that his first great interest in botany was
awakened; and, in the course of a tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden and several of the Swiss cantons, he began a
collection of plants which was afterwards the basis of his great work on the flora of Switzerland. From a literary point of view the
main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the Alps, was his poem entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March
1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte. This poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of
the earliest signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains (hitherto generally regarded as horrible monstrosities), though it is
chiefly designed to contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with the corrupt and decadent existence of the
dwellers in the plains.

In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a physician; his best energies, however, were devoted to the botanical

and anatomical researches which rapidly gave him a European reputation, and procured for him from George II. in 1736 a call to
the chair of medicine, anatomy, botany and surgery in the newly founded university of Göttingen. He became F.R.S. in 1743, and
was ennobled in 1749. The quantity of work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which he occupied his Göttingen
professorship was immense. Apart from the ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him the task of newly organizing a
botanical garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, an obstetrical school, and similar institutions, he carried on without
interruption those original investigations in botany and physiology, the results of which are preserved in the numerous works
associated with his name; he continued also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical composition, while at the same time he
conducted a monthly journal (the Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen), to which he is said to have contributed twelve thousand
articles relating to almost every branch of human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself in most of the religious questions,
both ephemeral and permanent, of his day; and the erection of the Reformed church in Göttingen was mainly due to his unwearied
energy. Notwithstanding all this variety of absorbing interests he never felt at home in Göttingen; his untravelled heart kept ever
turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a member of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to
resign his chair and return to Switzerland.

The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely occupied in the discharge of his duties in the minor political post of

a Rathhausammann which he had obtained by lot, and in the preparation of his Bibliotheca medica, the botanical, surgical and
anatomical parts of which he lived to complete; but he also found time to write the three philosophical romances—Usong (1771),
Alfred (1773) and Fabius and Cato (1774),—in which his views as to the respective merits of despotism, of limited monarchy
and of aristocratic republican government are fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered necessary his entire
withdrawal from public business; for some time he supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the use of which he
communicated a paper to the Proceedings of the Göttingen Royal Society in 1776; the excessive use of the drug is believed,
however, to have hastened his death, which occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, who had been three times married,
left eight children, the eldest of whom, Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist and as a writer on Swiss
historical bibliography (1785-1788, 7 vols.).

Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his very numerous works in various branches of science and

literature (a complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various editions, was published by Haller himself, in
1775, at the end of vol. 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned friends):—(1) Anatomical:—Icones
anatomicae (1743-1754); Disputationes anatomicae selectiores (1746-1752); and Opera acad. minora anatomici
argumenti (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:—De respiratione experimenta anatomica (1747); Primae lineae physiologiae
(1747); and Elementa physiologiae corporis humani (1757-1760). (3) Pathological and surgical:—Opuscula pathologica
(1754); Disputationum chirurg. collectio (1777); also careful editions of Boerhaave’s Praelectiones academicae in suas
institutiones rei medicae (1739), and of the Artis medicae principia of the same author (1769-1774). (4) Botanical:
—Enumeratio methodica stirpium Helveticarum (1742); Opuscula botanica (1749); Bibliotheca botanica (1771). (5)
Theological:—Briefe über die wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung (1772); and Briefe zur Vertheidigung der
Offenbarung (1775-1777). (6) Poetical:—Gedichte (1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances have been already
mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and “Tagebücher” or journals were published posthumously.

See J. G. Zimmermann, Das Leben des Herrn von Haller (1755), and the articles by Förster and Seiler in Ersch and

Gruber’s Encyklopädie, and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by L. Hirzel, printed at the head of his
elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 1882) of Haller’s Gedichte.

856

HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born at Aldingen in Württemberg, and after studying at

Pforzheim, where he met Melanchthon, and at Cologne, taught in the gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed assistant preacher at
the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people’s priest in 1520. Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had begun to
preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the abortive
conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and defended the ten theses for the conference of Bern which established the
new religion in that city. He left no writings except a few letters which are preserved in Zwingli’s works. He died on the 25th of
February 1536.

Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861).

HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was born at Haggerston, London, on the 29th of October 1656.

His father, a wealthy soapboiler, placed him at St Paul’s school, where he was equally distinguished for classical and mathematical
ability. Before leaving it for Queen’s College, Oxford, in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of the compass, and at
the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and improved method of determining the elements of the planetary orbits (Phil. Trans. xi.
683). His detection of considerable errors in the tables then in use led him to the conclusion that a more accurate ascertainment of
the places of the fixed stars was indispensable to the progress of astronomy; and, finding that Flamsteed and Hevelius had already
undertaken to catalogue those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed to himself the task of making observations in the southern
hemisphere. A recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company procured for him an apparently suitable, though, as it
proved, ill-chosen station, and in November 1676 he embarked for St Helena. On the voyage he noticed the retardation of the
pendulum in approaching the equator; and during his stay on the island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a transit of
Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of employing similar phenomena for determining the sun’s distance. He
returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration of 341 stars won the title of the “Southern Tycho,” and by the
translation to the heavens of the “Royal Oak,” earned a degree of master of arts, conferred at Oxford by the king’s command on
the 3rd of December 1678, almost simultaneously with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. Six months later, the
indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius as to the
respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and towards the end of 1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. In Paris he
observed, with G. D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 after its perihelion passage; and having returned to England, he married in
1682 Mary, daughter of Mr Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for fifty-five years. He now fixed
his residence at Islington, engaged chiefly upon lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of a method of finding the
longitude at sea. His mind, however, was also busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having reached so far as to perceive
that the central force of the solar system must decrease inversely as the square of the distance, and applied vainly to Wren and
Hooke for further elucidation, he made in August 1684 that journey to Cambridge for the purpose of consulting Newton, which
resulted in the publication of the Principia. The labour and expense of passing this great work through the press devolved upon
Halley, who also wrote the prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line—

Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos.

In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy comptroller of the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he

received a commission as captain of the “Paramour Pink” for the purpose of making extensive observations on the conditions of
terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the 52nd degree of S.
latitude. The results were published in a General Chart of the Variation of the Compass in 1701; and immediately afterwards
he executed by royal command a careful survey of the tides and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map of which he
produced in 1702. On his return from a journey to Dalmatia, for the purpose of selecting and fortifying the port of Trieste, he was
nominated, November 1703, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary degree of doctor of laws in
1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded Flamsteed as
astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth year, he undertook to observe the moon through an entire revolution of her nodes
(eighteen years), and actually carried out his purpose. He died on the 14th of January 1742. His tomb is in the old graveyard of St
Margaret’s church, Lee, Kent.

Halley’s most notable scientific achievements were—his detection of the “long inequality” of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the

acceleration of the moon’s mean motion (1693), his discovery of the proper motions of the fixed stars (1718), his theory of
variation (1683), including the hypothesis of four magnetic poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and his suggestion of the
magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his calculation of the orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), coupled with a
prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; and his indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. 348) of a
method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus.

His principal works are Catalogus stellarum australium (London, 1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii.

of Flamsteed’s Historia coelestis (1725); Synopsis astronomiae cometicae (Oxford, 1705); Astronomical Tables (London,
1752); also eighty-one miscellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the Philosophical Transactions. To
these should be added his version from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the treatise of Apollonius
De sectione rationis, with a restoration of his two lost books De sectione spatii, both published at Oxford in 1706; also his
fine edition of the Conics of Apollonius, with the treatise by Serenus De sectione cylindri et coni (Oxford, 1710, folio). His
edition of the Spherics of Menelaus was published by his friend Dr Costard in 1758. See also Biographia Britannica, vol.
iv. (1757); Gent. Mag. xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, Athenae Oxon. (Bliss), iv. 536; J. Aubrey, Lives, ii. 365; F. Baily, Account
of Flamsteed; Sir D. Brewster, Life of Newton; R. Grant, History of Astronomy, p. 477 and passim; A. J. Rudolph,
Bulletin of Bibliography, No. 14 (Boston, 1904); E. F. McPike, “Bibliography of Halley’s Comet,” Smithsonian Misc.

857

Collections, vol. xlviii. pt. i. (1905); Notes and Queries, 9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A
collection of manuscripts regarding Halley is preserved among the Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, Oxford; and many
of his unpublished letters exist at the Record Office and in the library of the Royal Society.

(A. M. C.)

HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS
(1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet of Iceland, was born in 1807 at Steinsstaðir in

Eyjafjarðarsýsla in the north of that island, and educated at the famous school of Bessastaðr. In 1832 he went to the university of
Copenhagen, and shortly afterwards turned his attention to the natural sciences, especially geology. Having obtained pecuniary
assistance from the Danish government, he travelled through all Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made
many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings on geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not acquired
by his writings in that language, but by his Icelandic poems and short stories. He was well read in German literature, Heine and
Schiller being his favourites, and the study of the German masters and the old classical writers of Iceland opened his eyes to the
corrupt state of Icelandic poetry and showed him the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic metaphors made the lyrical
and epical poetry of the day hardly intelligible, and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was mixed up with words of
German and Danish origin. The great Danish philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet Bjarni Thórarensen had
done much to purify the language, but Jónas Hallgrímsson completed their work by his poems and tales, in a purer language than
ever had been written in Iceland since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The excesses of Icelandic poetry were specially seen in the
so-called rímur, ballads of heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jónas Hallgrímsson, who at last succeeded in converting
the educated to his view. Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jónas Hallgrímsson appeared in the periodical Fjölnir,
which he began publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konráð Gíslason, a well-known philologist, and the patriotic
Thómas Saemundsson. Fjölnir had in the beginning a hard struggle against old prejudices, but as the years went by its influence
became enormous; and when it at last ceased, its programme and spirit still lived in Ný Félagsrit and other patriotic periodicals
which took its place. Jónas Hallgrímsson, who died in 1844, is the father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. He
introduced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his
poetical works are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every string of the old harp of Iceland.

(S. Bl.)

HALLIDAY, ANDREW [Andrew Halliday Duff] (1830-1877), British journalist and dramatist, was born at Marnoch,

Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and discarding the name
of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the notice of
Thackeray, he was invited to write for the Cornhill Magazine. From 1861 he contributed largely to All the Year Round, and
many of his articles were republished in collected form. He was also the author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces,
burlesques and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for the stage. Of these Little Em’ly (1869), his
adaptation of David Copperfield, was warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long run at Drury Lane. Halliday died
in London on the 10th of April 1877.

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD
(1820-1889), English Shakespearian scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell,

was born in London, on the 21st of June 1820. He was educated privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He devoted himself
to antiquarian research, particularly in early English literature. In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville’s Travels; in 1842 published
an Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library, besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century
(Torrent of Portugal). He became best known, however, as a Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his
Life of Shakespeare, which passed through several editions; in 1853-1865 a sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of
Shakespeare in folio, with full critical notes; in 1863 a Calendar of the Records at Stratford-on-Avon; in 1864 a History of
New Place. After 1870 he entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to elucidating the particulars of
Shakespeare’s life. He collated all the available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the information to be found in
local records in his Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. He was mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place for the
corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there of the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered more
than sixty volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps in 1872, under the will of the grandfather of his first wife, a daughter of Sir
Thomas Phillipps the antiquary. He took an active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy Society and the Shakespeare
Society, for which he edited many early English and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded from the library of the
British Museum on account of the suspicion attaching to his possession of some manuscripts which had been removed from the
library of Trinity College, Cambridge. He published privately an explanation of the matter in 1845. His house, Hollingbury Copse,
near Brighton, was full of rare and curious works, and he generously gave many of them to the Chetham library, Manchester, to

the town library of Penzance, to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library of Edinburgh university. He died on the
3rd of January 1889.

HALLOWE’EN, or All Hallows Eve, the name given to the 31st of October as the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints’ Day.

Though now known as little else but the eve of the Christian festival, Hallowe’en and its formerly attendant ceremonies long
antedate Christianity. The two chief characteristics of ancient Hallowe’en were the lighting of bonfires and the belief that of all
nights in the year this is the one during which ghosts and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about the 1st of
November the Druids held their great autumn festival and lighted fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for the harvest.
Further, it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of this festival Saman, lord of death, called together the wicked souls that within the
past twelve months had been condemned to inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is clear that the main celebrations of Hallowe’en
were purely Druidical, and this is further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st of October was, and even still is,
known as Oidhche Shamhna, “Vigil of Saman.” On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some of the characteristics of the
Roman festival in honour of Pomona held about the 1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as representing the winter store of
fruits, played an important part. Thus the roasting of nuts and the sport known as “apple-ducking”—attempting to seize with the
teeth an apple floating in a tub of water,—were once the universal occupation of the young folk in medieval England on the 31st of
October. The custom of lighting Hallowe’en fires survived until recent years in the highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying
embers it was usual to place as many small stones as there were persons around, and next morning a search was made. If any of
the pebbles were displaced it was regarded as certain that the person represented would die within the twelve months.

For details of the Hallowe’en games and bonfires see Brand’s Antiquities of Great Britain; Chambers’s Book of Days;

Grimm’s Deutsche Mythologie, ch. xx. (Elemente) and ch. xxxiv. (Aberglaube); and J. G. Frazer’s Golden Bough, vol. iii.
Compare also Beltane and Bonfire.

HALLSTATT, a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 67 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated on

the shore of the Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hallstatter Salzberg, and is built in amphitheatre with its houses clinging to the
mountain side. The salt mine of Hallstatt, which is one of the oldest in existence, was rediscovered in the 14th century. In the
neighbourhood is the celebrated Celtic burial ground, where a great number of very interesting antiquities have been found. Most
of these have been removed to the museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local museum.

The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture hitherto unknown, and accordingly the name Hallstatt has been

applied to objects of like form and decoration since found in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, north Italy,
France, Spain and Britain (see Celt). Everywhere else the change from iron weapons to bronze is immediate, but at Hallstatt iron
is seen gradually superseding bronze, first for ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing fully the old bronze
types, and finally taking new forms of its own. There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed in the Hallstatt area, and
that thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece, the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At
Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from Hallstatt, were the most famous iron mines of antiquity, which
produced the Noric iron and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 145; Horace, Epod.
17. 71). This iron needed no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted by nature, just as the Eskimo had
learned of themselves to use telluric iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were partly inhumation partly cremation; they
contained swords, daggers, spears, javelins, axes, helmets, bosses and plates of shields and hauberks, brooches, various forms of
jewelry, amber and glass beads, many of the objects being decorated with animals and geometrical designs. Silver was practically
unknown. The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being bronze. The swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for
cutting, not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of the Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade,
with large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter found also in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the
Pyrenees, Spain, north Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) were found. Both flanged and socketed celts occurred, the iron being
much more numerous than the bronze. The flat axes are distinguished by the side stops and in some cases the transition from
palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The shields were round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see Villanova). Greaves
were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in Bosnia; broad
bronze belts were numerous, adorned in repoussé with beast and geometric ornament. Brooches are found in great numbers, both
those derived from the primitive safety-pin (“Peschiera” type) and the “spectacle” or “Hallstatt” type found all down the Balkans
and in Greece. The latter are formed of two spirals of wire, sometimes four such spirals being used, whilst there were also
brooches in animal forms, one of the latter being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt culture is that of the Homeric Achaeans
(see Achaeans), but as the brooch (along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and the geometric ornament) passed
down into Greece from central Europe, and as brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, 1350 b.c., they must have been
invented long before that date in central Europe. But as they are found in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the early iron
culture of Hallstatt must have originated long before 1350 b.c., a conclusion in accord with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself.

See Baron von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt; Bertrand and S. Reinach, Les Celtes dans les vallées du Pô et du

Danube; W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece; Archaeology (plate).

(W. Ri.)

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(W. Ri.)

HALLUCINATION (from Lat. alucinari or allucinari, to wander in mind, Gr. ἀλύσσειν or ἀλύειν, from ἄλη,

wandering), a psychological term which has been the subject of much controversy, and to which, although there is now fair
agreement as to its denotation, it is still impossible to give a precise and entirely satisfactory definition. Hallucinations constitute one
of the two great classes of all false sense-perceptions, the other class consisting of the “illusions,” and the difficulty of definition is
clearly to mark the boundary between the two classes. Illusion may be defined as the misinterpretation of sense-impression, while
hallucination, in its typical instances, is the experiencing of a sensory presentation, i.e. a presentation having the sensory vividness
that distinguishes perceptions from representative imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the corresponding sense-organ.
There is, however, good reason to think that in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the sense-organ, coming
either from without or from within the body, plays a part in the genesis of the hallucination. This being so, we must be content to
leave the boundary between illusions and hallucinations ill-defined, and to regard as illusions those false perceptions in which
impressions made on the sense-organ play a leading part in determining the character of the percept , and as hallucinations
those in which any such impression is lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part and bears no obvious relation to the
character of the false percept.

As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not involve delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely perceived.

Among the sane the hallucinatory object is frequently recognized at once as unreal or at least as but quasi-real; and it is only the
insane, or persons in abnormal states, such as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination persists or recurs, fail to recognize that it
corresponds to no physical impression from, or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all the senses occur, but the most
commonly reported are the auditory and the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively rare. This apparent
difference of frequency is no doubt largely due to the more striking character of visual and auditory hallucinations, and to the
relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the case of perceptions of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell, that no impression
adequate to the genesis of the percept has been made upon the sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is probably due in part to
the more constant use of the higher senses and the greater strain consequently thrown upon them, in part also to their more
intimate connexion with the life of ideas.

The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, e.g., the subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his

voice and to feel the touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in spontaneous hallucination, but in hypnotic hallucination the subject
is apt to develop the object suggested to him, as present to one of his senses, and to perceive it also through other senses.

Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among auditory hallucinations human voices, are the objects most commonly

perceived. The figure seen always appears localized more or less definitely in the outer world. In many cases it appears related to
the objects truly seen in just the same way as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the eyes are closed or turned away, it does
not move with the movements of the eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by objects coming between the
place that it appears to occupy and the eye of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often experienced when the eyes are
open and the surrounding space is well or even brightly illuminated. Less frequently the visual hallucination takes the form of a self-
luminous figure in a dark place or appears in a luminous globe or mist which shuts out from view the real objects of the part of the
field of view in which it appears.

Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into two distinct classes—(1) those which are heard as coming from

without, and are more or less definitely localized in outer space, (2) those which seem to be within the head or, in some cases,
within the chest, and to have less definite auditory quality. It seems probable that the latter are hallucinations involving principally
kinaesthetic sensations, sensations of movement of the organs of speech.

Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and mental conditions, which may conveniently be classified as follows.

I. Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no distinct Departure from bodily and mental Sanity.

a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly healthy persons occasionally experience, while in a fully waking state,

hallucinations for which no cause can be assigned. The census of hallucinations conducted by the Society for Psychical Research
showed that about 10% of all sane persons can remember having experienced at least one hallucination while they believed
themselves to be fully awake and in normal health. These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons are far more frequently
visual than auditory, and they usually take the form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure in many cases is seen, on
turning the gaze in some new direction, fully developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may be revealed only by its
noiseless movements, or by its fading away in situ. A special interest attaches to hallucinations of this type, owing to the
occasional coincidence of the death of the person with his hallucinatory appearance. The question raised by these coincidences
will be discussed in a separate paragraph below.

b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem to experience repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. The

voice (δαιµόνιον) so frequently heard by Socrates, warning or advising him, is the most celebrated example of this type.

II. Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying distinct Departure from Health.

a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal person is liable is that known technically as “recurrent sensation.” This

kind is experienced only when some sense-organ has been continuously or repeatedly subjected to some one kind of impression
or stimulation for a considerable period; e.g. the microscopist, after examining for some hours one particular kind of object or

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structure, may suddenly perceive the object faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it were, upon any surface to
which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the sensations of movement at
intervals in the period following a sea voyage or long railway journey.

b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can induce hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished surface

or into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by applying a large shell or similar object to the ear. These methods of inducing
hallucinations, especially the former, have long been practised in many countries as modes of divination, various objects being
used, e.g. a drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or a polished finger-nail. The object now most commonly used is a polished
sphere of clear glass or crystal (see Crystal-Gazing). Hence such hallucinations go by the name of crystal visions. The crystal
vision often appears as a picture of some distant or unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in the picture figures may
come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or sentences appear.
The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly seems to be in a fully waking state as he observes the objects thus presented. He is
usually able to describe and discuss the appearances, successively discriminating details by attentive observation, just as when
observing an objective scene; and he usually has no power of controlling them, and no sense of having produced them by his own
activity. In some cases these visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or incidents which he could not voluntarily
recollect. In other cases they are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to the scryer information, about events distant in
time or place, that had not come to his knowledge by normal means. These cases have been claimed as evidence of telepathic
communication or even of clairvoyance. But at present the number of well-attested cases of this sort is too small to justify
acceptance of this conclusion by those who have only secondhand knowledge of them.

c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucinations, and it would seem that, under this condition, a large proportion

of otherwise healthy persons become liable to them, especially to auditory hallucinations.

d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal predispose to hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar type.

Thus Indian hemp and mescal, especially the latter, produce in many cases visual hallucinations in the form of a brilliant play of
colours, sometimes a mere succession of patches of brilliant colour, sometimes in architectural or other definite spatial
arrangement.

e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from waking to sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appearance

of hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned above are especially prone to appear at such times, and a considerable
proportion of the sporadic hallucinations of persons in good health are reported to have been experienced under these conditions.
The name “hypnagogic” hallucinations, first applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to those experienced in these transition
states.

f. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute the principal content of most dreams, are generally described as

hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very questionable. The present writer is confident that his own dream-
presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the essential mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, and which is
the principal, though not the only, character in which it differs from the representation or memory-image. It is true that the dream-
presentation, like the percept, differs from the representative imagery of waking life in that it is relatively independent of volition;
but that seems to be merely because the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. The wide currency of the doctrine that
classes dream-images with hallucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional control, and to the fact that during
sleep the representative imagery appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated or marginal sensation which always
accompanies waking imagery, and which by contrast accentuates for introspective reflection the lack of sensory vividness of such
imagery.

g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of hypnosis (see Hypnotism) show themselves, while in that condition,

extremely liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever object is suggested to them as present, and failing to perceive any object of
which it is asserted by the operator that it is no longer present. The reality of these positive and negative hallucinations of the
hypnotized subject has been recently questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives verbal assent to the suggestions
of the operator. But that the hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems to be proved by the cases in which it
is possible to make the hallucination, positive or negative, persist for some time after the termination of hypnosis, and by the fact
that in some of these cases the subject, who in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other respect normal and wide awake, may
find it difficult to distinguish between the hallucinatory and real objects. Further proof is afforded by experiments such as those by
which Alfred Binet showed that a visual hallucination may behave for its percipient in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it
may appear reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when a coloured glass is placed before the patient’s eyes. It
was by means of experiments of this kind that Binet showed that hypnotic hallucinations may approximate to the type of the
illusion, i.e. that some real object affecting the sense-organ (in the case of a visual hallucination some detail of the surface upon
which it is projected) may provide a nucleus of peripherally excited sensation around which the false percept is built up. An object
playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an hallucination is known as a “point de repère.” It has been maintained that all
hallucinations involve some such point de repère or objective nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting this view.

h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration of attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated

seems at times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire the character of an hallucination. In these cases the state of mind of
the subject is probably similar in many respects to that of the deeply hypnotized subject, and these two classes of hallucination
may be regarded as very closely allied.

III. Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and mental diseases.

a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first time, in the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more or less

painful visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, abdominal viscera, &c., are liable to experience hallucinations of a peculiar
kind. These “visceral” hallucinations, which are constantly accompanied by headache of the reflected visceral type, are most

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commonly visual, more rarely auditory. In all Dr Head’s cases the visual hallucination took the form of a shrouded human figure,
colourless and vague, often incomplete, generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he wakes in a dimly lit room. The
auditory “visceral” hallucination was in no instance vocal, but took such forms as sounds of tapping, scratching or rumbling, and
were heard only in the absence of objective noises. In a few cases the “visceral” hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory
and visual.

In all these respects the “visceral” hallucination differs markedly from the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination of

healthy persons.

b. Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general disorders in which the nervous system is involved, notably of the

delirium tremens, which results from chronic alcohol poisoning, and of the delirium of the acute specific fevers. The hallucinations
of these states are generally of a distressing or even terrifying character. Especially is this the rule with those of delirium tremens,
and in the hallucinations of this disease certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and snakes, occur with curious frequency.

c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain nervous diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities,

notably in cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In the former disorder, the sensory aura that so often precedes the
epileptic convulsion may take the form of an hallucinatory object, which in some cases is very constant in character. Unilateral
hallucinations, an especially interesting class, occur in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually accompanied by hemi-anaesthesia
of the body on the side on which the hallucinatory object is perceived.

d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable, proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes

are recognized: (1) those that are intimately connected with the dominant emotional state or with some dominant delusion; (2)
those that occur sporadically and have no such obvious relation to the other symptoms of disease. Hallucinations of the former
class tend to accentuate, and in turn to be confirmed by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; but whether these are to be
regarded as primary symptoms and as the cause of the hallucinations, or vice versa, it is generally impossible to say. Patients who
suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the voices of their
persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory voices, which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded as real and in
these cases seem to be factors of primary importance in the genesis of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in almost every
variety of mental disease, but are commonest in the forms characterized by a cloudy dream-like condition of consciousness, and in
extreme cases of this sort the patient (as in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to move waking through a world
consisting largely of the images of his own creation, set upon a background of real objects.

In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for long periods in the absence of any other symptom of mental

disorder, but these no doubt usually imply some morbid condition of the brain.

Physiology of Hallucination.—There has been much discussion as to the nature of the neural process in hallucination. It is

generally and rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception of any object has for its imm...