Ecotoxicology: Problems and Approaches

549 Pages·1989·16.42 MB·English

by  Simon A. Levin, Mark A. Harwell, John R. Kelly, Kenneth D. Kimball (auth.), Kenneth D. Kimball (eds.)

Springer Advanced Text in Life Sciences
David E. Reichle, Editor
Springer Advanced Texts in Life Sciences
Series Editor: David E. Reichle
Environmental Instrumentation
By Leo J. Fritschen and Lloyd W. Gay
Biophysical Ecology
By David M. Gates
Forest Succession: Concepts and Application
Edited by Darrel C. West, Herman H. Shugart,
and Daniel B. Botkin
Marine Ecological Processes
By Ivan Valiela
Analysis of Biogeochemical Cycling Processes in Walker
Branch Watershed
Edited by Dale W. Johnson and Robert I. Van Hook
Ecotoxicology: Problems and Approaches
Edited by Simon A. Levin, Mark A. Harwell,
John R. Kelly, and Kenneth D. Kimball
Simon A. Levin Mark A. Harwell
John R. Kelly Kenneth D. Kimball
Editors
Ecotoxicology:
Problems and Approaches
With 91 Figures
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg
London Paris Tokyo
Simon A. Levin Mark A. Harwell
Center for Environmental Research Center for Environmental Research
and Ecosystems Research Center and Ecosystems Research Center
Cornell University Cornell University
Ithaca, NY 14853, USA Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
John R. Kelly Kenneth D. Kimball
Ecosystems Research Center Research Department
Cornell University Appalachian Mountain Club
Ithaca, NY 14853, USA Gorham, NH 03581, USA
Series Editor:
David E. Reichle
Environmental Sciences Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ecotoxicology: problems and approaches/Simon A. Levin ... ret al.},
editors.
p. cm.-(Springer advanced texts in life sciences)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN-I3:978-1-4612-SI3S-2
1. Pollution-Environmental aspects. I. Levin, Simon A.
II. Series.
QH545.AIE293 1988
574.5'222-dcI9 88-16051
Printed on acid-free paper
© 1989 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1989
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the
written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY
10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use
in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter devel-
oped is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication,
even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names,
as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used
freely by anyone.
Typeset by Bi-Comp, Inc., York, Pennsylvania.
9 8 765 4 3 2 1
ISBN-13:978-1-4612-SI3S-2 e-ISBN-13:97S-1-4612-3520-0
DOl: lO.lO07/97S-1-4612-3520-0
Preface
Ecotoxicology is the science that seeks to predict the impacts of chemi-
cals upon ecosystems. This involves describing and predicting ecological
changes ensuing from a variety of human activities that involve release of
xenobiotic and other chemicals to the environment.
A fundamental principle of ecotoxicology is embodied in the notion of
change. Ecosystems themselves are constantly changing due to natural
processes, and it is a challenge to distinguish the effects of anthropogenic
activities against this background of fluctuations in the natural world.
With the frustratingly large, diverse, and ever-emerging sphere of envi-
ronmental problems that ecotoxicology must address, the approaches to
individual problems also must vary. In part, as a consequence, there is no
established protocol for application of the science to environmental prob-
lem-solving.
The conceptual and methodological bases for ecotoxicology are, how-
ever, in their infancy, and thus still growing with new experiences. In-
deed, the only robust generalization for research on different ecosystems
and different chemical stresses seems to be a recognition of the necessity
of an ecosystem perspective as focus for assessment. This ecosystem
basis for ecotoxicology was the major theme of a previous pUblication by
the Ecosystems Research Center at Cornell University, a special issue of
Environmental Management (Levin et al. 1984). With that effort, we also
recognized an additional necessity: there should be a continued develop-
ment of methods and expanded recognition of issues for ecotoxicology
and for the associated endeavor of environmental management. Thus, this
volume addresses the growth of the science of ecotoxicology by examin-
ing a number of problems and approaches in depth. We envisioned a
volume with a broad scope that would serve as assessment of the state
vi Preface
and promise of the science-useful for scientists in the field, as well as for
the environmental managers and regulators who would draw upon the
scientific findings, and for graduate students who will be the next genera-
tion of environmental problem-solvers.
Ecotoxicology will continue to evolve. We hope this volume, drawing
on a variety of tools and experiences, adequately reflects some of the
progress and maturation of the field; and that it will stimulate further
development.
The editors have many people to thank for guiding this long process
through to its completion. The authors of the chapters were responsive to
our many queries and reviews and were patient with our criticisms and
suggested revisions. We also thank the reviewers of the individual chap-
ters, especially including our colleagues at the Ecosystems Research
Center.
Colleen Martin was instrumental in coordinating the initial stages of the
project. Kathy May assisted in the typing of many manuscripts, and the
conversion among a number of word processing files speaking languages
of their own. The final typing, formatting, and preparation of the book
was done by Carin Rundle, with her typical speed and efficiency. She
patiently endured endless versions and last minute additions.
The greatest debt is owed to Cynthia Berger, who acted as book coor-
dinator for the final phases of its completion. Juggling many tasks and
coping with mUltiple editors' and authors' complaints and quirks, she
effectively held us on course. Without her able help, this volume could
well exist only as an intermediate draft-bound in spiral notebooks.
This publication is ERC-154 of the Ecosystems Research Center
(ERC), Cornell University, and was supported by the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency Cooperative Agreement Number CR812685-01.
Additional funding was provided by Cornell University. The work and
conclusions herein represent the views of the authors or editors and do
not necessarily represent the opinions, policies, or recommendations of
the Environmental Protection Agency.
The Editors
Contents
Preface v
Contributors xiii
Part I Ecotoxicology: Problems and Approaches
Chapter 1
Ecotoxicology: Problems and Approaches 3
Simon A. Levin, Mark A. Harwell, John R. Kelly,
and Kenneth D. Kimball
Chapter 2
Indicators of Ecosystem Response and Recovery 9
John R. Kelly and Mark A. Harwell
2.1 Stress, Ecosystem Response, and Recovery 13
2.2 A Focus on Useful Ecological Endpoints 22
2.3 Ecosystem Indicators 26
2.4 Conclusion 32
Part" Responses of Ecosystems to Chemical Stress
Chapter 3
Effects of Heavy Metals in a Polluted Aquatic Ecosystem 41
Paul L. Klerks and Jeffrey s. Levinton
3.1 Approaches 42
viii Contents
3.2 Some Background on Metal-Polluted Foundry Cove 45
3.3 Effects of Heavy Metals on the Composition of the
Macrobenthos 49
3.4 The Evolution of Resistance to Heavy Metals 49
3.5 Heavy Metal Accumulation and Detoxification in Resistant
Biota 54
3.6 Conclusion 61
Chapter 4
Determining the Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution
in Marine Ecosystems 69
Robert W. Howarth
4.1 Acute Toxicity, the LD50 Approach 70
4.2 Ecosystem-Level Approaches 72
4.3 Effects of Oil Pollution on Benthic Communities 74
4.4 Effects of Oil Pollution on Planktonic Communities 79
4.5 Significance of the Observed Ecosystem Effects 84
4.6 ConclQsions 87
Chapter 5
The Effects of Chemical Stress on Aquatic Species
Composition and Community Structure 99
Jesse Ford
5.1 Information Required for Effective Resource Management 100
5.2 Methodologies Used in the Study of Chemical Stress
Effects 101
5.3 Early Studies of Community Composition and Structure as
Indicators of Chemical Stress: The Historical Context 105
5.4 Structural Changes 107
5.5 Conclusions 129
Chapter 6
Theoretical and Methodological Reasons for Variability
in the Responses of Aquatic Ecosystem Processes
to Chemical Stresses 145
Suzanne N. Levine
6.1 The Global Significance of Ecosystem Processes and
Chemical Stresses 145
6.2 The Detection of Ecosystem Responses to Stress 148
6.3 Terminology 149
6.4 Methodological Issues 150
6.5 Mechanistic Issues 156
6.6 Effects of Chemical Stress on Functional Networks 169
Contents ix
6.7 Chemical Stress Effects on Interactions Between
Functional Networks 172
6.8 Indices of Ecosystem Health 173
6.9 Conclusions 174
Chapter 7
The Effects of Chemicals on the Structure of Terrestrial
Ecosystems: Mechanisms and Patterns of Change 181
David A. Weinstein and Elaine M. Birk
7.1 Mechanisms of Chemical Exposure 184
7.2 Effects of Disturbance on Organisms 186
7.3 Consequences of Organism Injury to Alterations in
Ecosystem Structure 191
7.4 Conclusions 203
Part III Methods and Models
Chapter 8
Models in Ecotoxicology: Methodological Aspects 213
SimQn A. Levin
8.1 Physical and Biological Scales 215
8.2 Aggregation, Simplification, and the Problem of
Dimensionality 216
8.3 Equilibrium and Variability 218
Chapter 9
Mathematical Models-Fate, Transport, and Food Chain 221
Donald J. O'Connor, John P. Connolly,
and Edward J. Garland
9.1 Components of Model 223
9.2 Transport, Salinity, and Solids Analyses 225
9.3 Organic Chemicals in the Water Column 229
9.4 Application to Kepone in the James River 231
9.5 Food Chain 234
9.6 Application to James River Striped Bass Food Chain 236
9.7 Conclusion 242
Chapter 10
Deterministic and Statistical Models of Chemical Fate
in Aquatic Systems 245
Robert V. Thomann
10.1 Theory 246
10.2 Steady-State Simplification 257
x Contents
10.3 Deterministic Time Variable Models 261
10.4 Statistical Variation in Fish 269
10.5 Conclusions 275
Chapter 11
Bioaccumulation of Hydrophobic Organic Pollutant
Compounds 279
John W. Farrington
11.1 Physical-Chemical Considerations and Bioavailability 284
11.2 Biological Uptake, Retention, Metabolism, and Release 294
11.3 Bivalve Molluscs 301
11.4 Fish, Crustacea, and Polychaetes 306
11.5 Dietary Source of Organic Pollutants 307
11.6 Conclusion 308
Chapter 12
Environmental Chemical Stress Effects Associated with
Carbon and Phosphorus Biogeochemical Cycles 315
Abraham Lerman, Fred T. Mackenzie,
and Robert J. Geiger
12.1 Carbon Cycle 317
12.2 Phosphorus Cycle 324
12.3 Simple Cycle Models 326
12.4 Analysis of Environmental Stresses in Carbon and
Phosphorus Cycles 331
12.5 Stresses and Perturbations in the Carbon and Phosphorus
Cycles 335
12.6 Sensitivity of Nutrient Flows to Biotic and Mineral
Controls 344
12.7 Conclusion 348
Chapter 13
Biomonitoring: Closing the Loop in the Environmental
Sciences 351
Edwin E. Herricks, David J. Schaeffer, and James A. Perry
13.1 Biomonitoring Programs for Ecosystems 352
13.2 Improving Biomonitoring Programs 354
13.3 Ecotoxicological and Biomonitoring Systems 364
Chapter 14
The Role of Terrestrial Microcosms and Mesocosms
in Ecotoxicologic Research 367
James W. Gillett
14.1 Historical Perspective 367